Wikiversity:Sandbox

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      <contributor>
        <username>Fratph</username>
        <id>3099422</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Initial draft: Learning module on the history and leadership of Philippine fraternities and National Fraternity Day PH</comment>
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__NOTOC__
{{Learning project
| topic = Fraternal Studies
| level = Intermediate
| Subject = Social Sciences
}}

== Overview ==
This educational learning module explores the socio-cultural evolution of the Greek-letter system in the Philippines. It focuses on the transition of traditional student organizations from historical rivalries into institutional vehicles for peace, nation-building, and civic action through the community-recognized annual observance known as '''National Fraternity Day PH'''.

== Module 1: Centennial Heritage ==
The Philippine Greek-letter system began on November 19, 1918, with the founding of Upsilon Sigma Phi. Many organizations now observe this date as National Fraternity Day PH.

== Module 2: Guiding Principles ==
* '''Fraternity in Peace''' – Diplomatic dialogue and mutual respect.
* '''Unity in Purpose''' – Nation-building and community development.

=== Symbolism ===
* Torch: Hope and continuity
* Book: Knowledge
* Temple: Tradition
* Clasped Hands: Brotherhood and peace
* Laurel Leaves: Honor

Colors: Blue (Peace), Gold (Excellence), Black (Permanence).

== Module 3: Civic Engagement ==
The movement promotes civic projects and full compliance with Republic Act No. 11053 (Anti-Hazing Act of 2018).

== Discussion Questions ==
# How does the 1918 legacy influence modern fraternity relations?
# How does RA 11053 change fraternal practices?

[[Category:Social sciences learning projects]]
[[Category:Fraternal organizations]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Notices for custodians</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:17:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 2FA requirement for bureaucrats */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians/Archive/8#2FA requirement for bureaucrats]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Redundant user rights ==

I recently changed the user rights for community approved custodians and bureaucrats per consensus. I just realized that I removed curator for Atcovi when adding 'crat thinking that curator was redundant. I then realized that I haven't been consistent about removing old bits. I don't have a strong opinion on this. Just asking. Should curator rights be removed when adding custodian or 'crat? I've never been a curator and don't currently have that bit set. Some accounts still have curator with other rights and others (like mine) don't. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:00, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:If someone steps down as bureaucrat but wants to remain a custodian/curator, then having those rights as well ensures that they won't be accidentally removed. This exact scenario just happened on another wiki where I am a bureaucrat. It can't hurt to have the redundant ones, if you ask me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:02, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Currently]], all the 'crats have custodian; Koavf additionally has curator, which none of the other 'crat accounts have. PieWriter, MathXplore, and Koavf are the only custodians to also have curator. [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&amp;group=sysop&amp;wpsubmit=&amp;wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&amp;limit=50] I propose that we should either a) add curator to all 'crats and custodians or b) remove the redundant bit from all accounts. I don't have a preference, I'm just advocating for consistency and clarity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:49, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I lean more on removing the curator bit from all custodians and bureaucrats, as custodians themselves have most, if not all curator user rights, followed by some additional user rights. I planned to remove the curator bit from custodians and to leave a note here about my action(s) for review, until I saw this message. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:54, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I'm inclined to follow the [[w:Principle of least privilege]] and remove redundant bits. A custodian or 'crat doesn't need curator. Granting these bits later should be no big deal. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:13, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Agree with principles of simplicity and consistency. Plus that agreed practice should be documented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:18, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

{{ping|Atcovi|PieWriter|MathXplore|Koavf}} Pinging contributors who may have an interest in discussion. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:I'm okay with whatever. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:19, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Removing the curator is OK. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:33, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Seems fine to me [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:37, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{done}} for all three above. Atcovi already removed his own curator rights as it was redundant to custodian rights. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

== Deleting subpages ==

What script do you suggest for deleting a large number of subpages? I found:
* [[Wikipedia:User:Splarka/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
* [[Wikisource:User:George Orwell III/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:31, 5 June 2026 (UTC)

:I use MassDelete. You can find a copy at [[User:Koavf/common.js]] and enable it at [[Special:MassDelete]] once you have added it to your JS page(s). ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:00, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
: I use MassDelete by DreamRimmer, see [[m:User:DreamRimmer/MassDelete.js]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:14, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
:As far as I dont know MassDelete, I would try to do it with [[special:nuke]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
::Nuke expires, so if a page was created more than &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; days ago, then Nuke won't catch it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:15, 8 June 2026 (UTC)

== Guy vandegrift rights change ==

{{Ping|Maintenance script}} I'm curious about this [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&amp;logid=3555817 rights change for Guy vandegrift] which removed Bureaucrat status. Guy hasn't edited for 6 months, but I thought the [[meta:Admin activity review|Wikimedia inactivity policy was for 2 years]]. Plus, I don't think see any communication with [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] prior to the rights change. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:59, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
: It's not a user, it's actually a maintenance script. Guy vandegrift's bureaucrat permission was removed presumably because they did not enable 2FA. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:06, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
:: OK, yes, thankyou, that makes sense. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:21, 12 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>iwm8mkmbh340bfts02lb7cipunr7qj5</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2817871</id>
      <parentid>2817869</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:17:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Redundant user rights */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians/Archive/8#Redundant user rights]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="2662" sha1="ndv81j2fc78bvy1drrnhlvapaxfj7z0" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}

== Deleting subpages ==

What script do you suggest for deleting a large number of subpages? I found:
* [[Wikipedia:User:Splarka/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
* [[Wikisource:User:George Orwell III/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:31, 5 June 2026 (UTC)

:I use MassDelete. You can find a copy at [[User:Koavf/common.js]] and enable it at [[Special:MassDelete]] once you have added it to your JS page(s). ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:00, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
: I use MassDelete by DreamRimmer, see [[m:User:DreamRimmer/MassDelete.js]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:14, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
:As far as I dont know MassDelete, I would try to do it with [[special:nuke]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
::Nuke expires, so if a page was created more than &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; days ago, then Nuke won't catch it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:15, 8 June 2026 (UTC)

== Guy vandegrift rights change ==

{{Ping|Maintenance script}} I'm curious about this [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&amp;logid=3555817 rights change for Guy vandegrift] which removed Bureaucrat status. Guy hasn't edited for 6 months, but I thought the [[meta:Admin activity review|Wikimedia inactivity policy was for 2 years]]. Plus, I don't think see any communication with [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] prior to the rights change. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:59, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
: It's not a user, it's actually a maintenance script. Guy vandegrift's bureaucrat permission was removed presumably because they did not enable 2FA. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:06, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
:: OK, yes, thankyou, that makes sense. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:21, 12 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ndv81j2fc78bvy1drrnhlvapaxfj7z0</sha1>
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      <id>2817873</id>
      <parentid>2817871</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:18:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deleting subpages */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians/Archive/8#Deleting subpages]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2817873</origin>
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== Guy vandegrift rights change ==

{{Ping|Maintenance script}} I'm curious about this [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&amp;logid=3555817 rights change for Guy vandegrift] which removed Bureaucrat status. Guy hasn't edited for 6 months, but I thought the [[meta:Admin activity review|Wikimedia inactivity policy was for 2 years]]. Plus, I don't think see any communication with [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] prior to the rights change. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:59, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
: It's not a user, it's actually a maintenance script. Guy vandegrift's bureaucrat permission was removed presumably because they did not enable 2FA. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:06, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
:: OK, yes, thankyou, that makes sense. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:21, 12 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>q1jne48yujmm9vuc1fy7wb8vhli7czo</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2817875</id>
      <parentid>2817873</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:18:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Guy vandegrift rights change */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians/Archive/8#Guy vandegrift rights change]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <id>2817876</id>
      <parentid>2817875</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:19:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notice about granting curator rights */ new topic ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Notice about granting curator rights ==

As of now, only bureaucrats can grant and remove curator rights because curator has some custodian-level permissions (delete [but not undelete], protect, etc.). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:19, 7 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bloom Clock/Contributors</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>2817861</id>
      <parentid>2792540</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T15:12:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juandev</username>
        <id>2651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Prague */ fix link</comment>
      <origin>2817861</origin>
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      <text bytes="12509" sha1="5zehfwnv19z5iayih3lrhim27cgcm5n" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sage (Leucophyllum?).png|thumb|right|[[w:Sage|Sage]]]]

Instructions: Sign up under country, state/province, county, and town (the latter encouraged but not required for those with privacy concerns) to allow for interpretaion of your bloom time data. In order to make the data easier for bots to go through, use alternate accounts if you are recording from different regions.

'''Note:''' Contributors who are logging bloom times from more than one geographical area should use alternate accounts, in order to make it easy to analyze the data. 

==Austria==
===Styria===
====Gleisdorf====
--[[User:Anna gdf|Anna gdf]] 11:19, 11 May 2010 (UTC)
:*Latitude  47° 06' N
:*Longitude 15° 42' O

===Vienna===
*--[[User:Anna reg|Anna reg]] 11:32, 12 April 2010 (UTC)
:*Latitude  48° 12′ N
:*Longitude 16° 22′ O

==Australia==

===New South Wales===

*-- [[User:Callicoma|Callicoma]] Annandale 31 January 2011
:*Latitude 33.8814° S
:*Longitude ; 151.1707° E

*_ [[User:Gavman2508|Gavman2508]] Newcastle 26 December 2011
:*32° 55′ 0″ S, 151° 45′ 0″ E

===Victoria===
*-- [[User:MichaelBillington|Michael Billington]] ([[User talk:MichaelBillington|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/MichaelBillington|contribs]])
:*Latitude 37°49′52″S
:*Longitude 145°21′36″E
*--[[User:HortMan|HortMan]] 11:30, 1 April 2008 (UTC)
:*Melbourne

===Western Australia===
*-- [[User:Gnangarra|Gnangarra]] - All new entries to confirmed with photographic evidence loaded onto commons
:*Latitude 31°52′48″S
:*Longitude 115°52′58″E

==Canada==
===Ontario===
*--[[User:Kember|Kember]]
:*Latitude 46º 34' N 
:*Longitude 80º 09' W

*[[User:Khono|Khono]] 04:34, 17 February 2009 (UTC)
:*Newmarket, Ontario
:*Latitude 44º 03' N 
:*Longitude 79º 27' W


====Toronto====

*[[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 14:21, 9 May 2007 (UTC)
*--[[User:Rene|Rene]] 18:10, 17 Feb 2009 (UTC)
:*Latitude 43º 40' N
:*Longitude 79º 24' W

===Winnipeg===
*--[[User:Wolf1989|Wolf1989]]
:*Latitude 49° 53' N
:*Longitude 97° 10' W

===Québec===
*--[[User:L'Assomption|L'Assomption]]
:*Latitude 45º 50' N
:*Longitude 73º25' W

===British Columbia===
*--[[User:Bridget barcode|Bridget barcode]] 
:*Latitude 49* 10' N
:Longitude 123º 56' W

===Alberta===
*--[[User:racheleverest12|racheleverest12]]
:*Latitude 51º 56' N
:Longitude 114º 06' W

==Czech Republic==
===Prague===
*--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 14:40, 4 October 2007 (UTC)
:*Latitude 50º 5′ 14″ N 
:*Longitude 14º 25′ 16″ E
:*Elevation: 177-399 m
:*Weather:
:*Morphology: 
:*Type: urban

=== Central Bohemian Region ===
==== Karlstein ====
*--[[User:Juan Karlstein|Juan Karlstein]] 17:11, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
:*Latitude 49° 55′ 56″ N 
:*Longitude 14° 10′ 31″ E 
:*Elevation: 210-380 m
:*Weather:
:*Morphology: 
:*Type: rural/forest

=== South Bohemian Region ===
==== Pisek District ====
*--[[User:Juan Pisek|Juan Pisek]] 17:26, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
:*Latitude 
:*Longitude 
:*Elevation: 
:*Weather:
:*Morphology: 
:*Type: urban/rural/countryside

==== Cesky Krumlov ====
*--[[User:Juan-Cesky Krumlov|Juan-Cesky Krumlov]] 17:56, 11 December 2007 (UTC)
:*Latitude 
:*Longitude 
:*Elevation: 
:*Weather:
:*Morphology: 
:*Type: 

=== Western Bohemian Region ===
==== Karlovy Vary ====
*--[[User:Juan Karlovy Vary|Juan Karlovy Vary]] 23:01, 23 March 2008 (UTC)
:*Latitude 
:*Longitude 
:*Elevation: 
:*Weather:
:*Morphology: thermal streams
:*Type: urban/urban park

=== Moravian-Silesian Region ===
==== Ostrava ====
* --[[User:Chemgym|Chemgym]] 19:52, 22 April 2008 (UTC)
:*Latitude 49° 50′ 8″ N
:*Longitude 18° 17′ 33″ E
:*Elevation: 260 m
:*Weather: local climate is temperate with warm summers and cold, cloudy, humid winters
:*Morphology:
:*Type: urban

== Germany ==
=== Saxony ===
==== Leipzig Lowlands ====
*-- [[User:Turnvater Jahn|Turnvater Jahn]] 16:10, 20 May 2008 (UTC)
:*Latitude 51°22' N
:*Longitude 12°21' E
:*Elevation 100 m NN
==== Chemnitz, foothills Ore Mountains ====
*-- [[User:Turnvater Jahn C|Turnvater Jahn C]] 14:35, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
:*Latitude 50°50' N
:*Longitude 12°55' E
:*Elevation 300 m NN


== Greece ==
=== Attica ===
==== Athens ====
:*Latitude 37°58′ N
:*Longitude 23°43′ E
*--[[User:Sgv 6618]] 12:20, 18 Mzr 2015 (UTC)

== India==
=== Tamil Nadu ===
==== Chennai ====
:*Latitude 13&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;05' N
:*Longitude 80&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;18' E
*--[[User:ADC]] 10:30, 20 Mar 2008 (UTC)
*--[[User:Buckminsterfullrene]]  10:55, 21 Jul 2022 (IST)

==Japan==
*--[[User:BrightBoo|Terry]]12:20, 7 Feb 2008 (UTC)
=== Hokkaido ===

===Tohoku===
===Kanto===
====Hiratuka====
*--[[User:BrightBoo|Terry]]12:20, 7 Feb 2008 (UTC)
:*Latitude 35º21' N 
:*Longitude 139º 17' E

===Chubu===
===Kansai===
===Chyugoku===
===Shikoku===
===Kyusyu===
===Okinawa===
==Mexico==
===Guanajuato===
*--[[User:Isildil|Isildil]]
:*Latitude 21º 07' N 
:*Longitude 101º 40' O 

==New Zealand==
===Auckland===
*--[[User:SortaQuiet|SortaQuiet]]
===Wellington===

===Horowhenua===
- Levin

[[User:Rambla|Rambla]] 10:03, 20 December 2008 (UTC)

==Sweden==
===Stockholm===
*[[User:Dgse87|Dgse87]] 09:35, 11 December 2009 (UTC)
:*Latitude 59° 19′ N
:*Longitude 18° 3′ E
:*Elevation: 11 m
:*Type: Urban

==Switzerland==
===Zürich===
*[[User:Richardofoakshire|Richardofoakshire]] 22:40, 5 March 2011 (UTC)

==United Kingdom==

===Aberdeen===
*--[[User:Paulmartin42|Paulmartin42]] 20:06, 17 May 2008 (UTC)
===Devon===
*--[[User:Herbythyme|{{font|color=green|Herby}}]] &lt;b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#90F&quot;&gt;[[User talk:Herbythyme|talk thyme]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/b&gt; - these will probably be from my garden
===London===
*--[[User:Chelodonium|{{font|color=green|'''Chelodonium'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Chelodonium|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; - will input entries from blooms in london and on jaunts arround the UK.
**Category series: LONDON
===Manchester===
*[[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 15:46, 5 November 2007 (UTC) - intend to document flora of Manchester (possibly other locations also)

==United States==
===Alabama===
Marshall County near Arab
#[[User:Duiarmia|Duiarmia]] 21:03, 27 May 2008 (UTC)

===Arkansas===
Washington County
#[[User:Wilderix|Wilderix]] 15:03, 8 July 2013 (UTC)

=== California ===

==== San Francisco, 2km from the Pacific Ocean ====
#[[User:Bastique|Bastique]]

==== Oakland, hills area, Alameda County ====
#[[User:heidorn|heidorn]]

==== SanDiegoCounty ====
#[[User:ckgarrod|ckgarrod]] SanDiego 32.8nw117.2

==== Orange County ====
#[[User:tr3ndyBEAR|tr3ndyBEAR]] (added on: 17 February 2021 (UTC))
'''Ferndale, Humboldt County''' 

# [[Swampthingsjunkyard]] (added on 17 February 2026) 

=== Colorado ===
Aurora, just east of Denver
[[User:Ngravagna|Ngravagna]] 17:00, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

Southeast Aurora
*[[User:Taylorali|Taylorali]] 21:12, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

Colorado Springs
*[[User:l_d_allan|l_d_allan]] 20:00, 30 July 2013 (UTC)

Western Slope, Gunnison National Forest
*[[User:Orschstaffer|Orschstaffer]] '''&lt;span class=&quot;sig1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#A2ADD0;color:#353839;&quot;&gt;''[[w:User:Orschstaffer|O]]''=[[m:User:Orschstaffer|M]]&lt;sub&gt;''[[User:Orschstaffer|C]]''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[Special:Contributions/Orschstaffer|4]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''' 21:11, 26 August 2012 (UTC)

=== Connecticut ===
Pat, Tolland County

=== Florida ===

=== Georgia ===
Pickens County, North Georgia

Baraka Photos

Union County, North Georgia

Georgia Master Naturalists

=== Louisiana ===
Grant Parish

=== Maryland ===
===== Howard County =====
'''James_Hade''', Most entries from flora in and around Patapsco Valley State Park, ([[Ellicott City, MD]]). 
USDA hardiness zone 6b/7a
Latitude 39° 16.3446'N

=== Massachustts ===
===== Franklin County =====
*[[User: TristanDolciano]] Deerfield, USDA Zone 5b


=== Minnesota ===
===== Anoka County =====
*[[User:vaericks|Vaericks]] USDA Zone 4a, northern Anoka County
===== Cass County =====
*[[User:Trinity507|Trinity507]] Logs from southern Cass County and the adjacent Crow Wing County (Brainerd Lakes Area).
===== Todd County =====
*[[User: Timothy Micheal King]] Western Todd County

=== Missouri===
===== Carter County =====
*[[User:ottenlipsmv|ottenlipsmv]]
===== St. Louis County =====
*[[User:Clarinetguy097|Clarinetguy097]] ([[User talk:Clarinetguy097|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Clarinetguy097|contribs]]) 12:43, 22 July 2017 (UTC)

=== Nevada ===

===== Washoe County =====

*[[User:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] 12:39, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

===New York===

=====Kings County (Brooklyn)=====

=====Erie County=====
[[User:helikophis|helikophis]]

=====Washington County=====
[[User:Jomegat-UPNY|Jomegat-UPNY]]

===Arizona===
=====Maricopa County=====
* [[User:JWSchmidt]] - **[http://www.sunset.com/sunset/Reference/GardenRef/WesternClimateZones.html#NorCal Sunset Western Climate Zone] #13
**34°N 112°W

===Kentucky===
=====Hopkins County=====
* [[user:Jomegat-WKY|Jomegat-WKY]]

===Illinois===
[[User:Laleena|Laleena]] 16:07, 8 June 2007 (UTC), Lake County

===North Carolina===
[[User:Frank|Frank]] 12:02, 30 May 2008 (UTC), Wake County

===Ohio===
=====Wood County=====
* [[User:Kathryn]]

===Oregon===
=====Jackson County=====
* [[User:Hazel]]
Sunset Western Climate Zone] #7
**Category series: SWOR
=====Washington County=====
* [[User:DonDon]]
**Category series: NWOR

===Pennsylvania===

=====Berks County=====
*--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; - Most entries coming from blooms on my farm ([[w:Bechtelsville, PA|Bechtelsville, PA]]). 
**USDA hardiness zone: 6a/b
**Nearest GDD clock:
**Latitude: 40°22′12″N
**Category series: [[:Category:Bloom Clock/Southeastern Pennsylvania Categories|SEPA]]

=====Chester County=====
*[[User:SBJ|SBJ]] --Alternate account for [[User:SB_Johnny]], for records in or near Malvern, Chester County, PA.
**Category series: [[:Category:Bloom Clock/Southeastern Pennsylvania Categories|SEPA]]

=====Centre County=====
*--[[User:Luai lashire|Luai lashire]]  - I'll be logging plants from my garden and the country side imediately surrounding State College.
**Category series: [[:Category:Bloom Clock/Central Pennsylvania Categories|CTPA]]

=====Montgomery County=====
*[[User:SB Johnny-LM|SB Johnny-LM]] -- alternate account for [[User:SB_Johnny]], for recording blooms in Lower Merion Township, where I often work.
*[[User:Pfthom01|Pfthom01]]

**Category series: [[:Category:Bloom Clock/Southeastern Pennsylvania Categories|SEPA]]

===New Hampshire===
*[[User:Jomegat|Jomegat]] - it's a small state, and I tramp around in several counties (but mostly in Merrimack).
**Category series: NHAMP
*[[User:SB_Johnny-NHAMP|SB_Johnny-NHAMP]] - yet another alternate account for [[User:SB_Johnny|SB_Johnny]], for logging blooms in New Hampshire.
*[[User:Jkdt65|Jkdt65]] - Jaffrey, Cheshire county, generally in the vicinity of Old County Rd.

===Rhode Island===
*[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] - Providence
**USDA hardiness zone: 6a
**41°50'20&quot;N, 71°23'57&quot;W

*[[User:RILockGuy]] - Washington County
**Based in Kingston, but hike and observe all over state

===South Carolina===
'''Berkeley County'''

====Greenville County====
=====Greer=====
*[[User:Nikhilajain]]
**USDA Hardiness Zone:  7B
***34°55′49″N 82°13′30″W
****[[User:Nikhilajain|Nikhilajain]] 16:02, 31 May 2008 (UTC)
===Washington===
=====Spokane County=====
* [[User:Abee60]] - [http://www.sunset.com/sunset/garden/article/0,20633,845227,00.html Sunset's climate zone] #2
**47°40’ N, 117°10’ W
=====Mason County=====
*[[User:maidmarian823|maidmarian823]] - Hoodsport

===Wisconsin===
* [[User:Rayc]] - [http://www.sunset.com/sunset/garden/article/0,20633,845264,00.html Sunset's Climate Zone] #41
** 43.05° N -87.95° W
=====Milwaukee County=====
* [[User:GrannyGardener]]
**USDA Hardiness Zone:   5B
**Sunset climate zone: 41

===Tennessee===
=====Cumberland County=====
* [[User:Lzyjo]] - Recording on the Cumberland Plateau at 1,880 feet near I-40 and Catoosa Wildlife Management Area
**USDA Hardiness Zone:   6b
**Latitude 36° 2′ N,  Longitude 18° 53′ W
**Elevation: 610 m (1880 ft)
**Type: High-density population/forest

===Virginia===
=====Fauquier County=====
* [[User:Serotoninskunk]] - Central Piedmont region - Southern Fauquier County and surrounding areas
**USDA Hardiness Zone: 7a
**Latitude 38.6,  Longitude -77.6°
**Elevation: 80 m (270 ft)
**Type: Rural/Agricultural (nearby rapid suburban growth and pipeline construction)

[[Category:Bloom Clock|Contributors]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Websites */  The link went to some diamond jewelry place, nothing about it was related to what was stated.</comment>
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      <text bytes="44418" sha1="7mew3od47b1rliagr6uft3jpeum5i06" xml:space="preserve">{{learning innovation}}
==Strategic planning for the project==
Strategic planning can be viewed as answering the Why, What, Who, When and Where questions along with the strategic part of the How questions of a project. The practical How questions can be dealt with under tactical planning. In practice this entails identifying the context of the project (intellectual, technological,  economic, social, etc.), setting the goals for the project, identifying the objectives needed to achieve these goals, identifying who will be involved in the project and identifying what resources the project will need. 
===Why is the ''Learning to learn a Wiki way'' project needed?===
Since wikis are a relatively new social phenomenon, using wikis as tools for learning is a new and evolving social practice. If Wikiversity is to succeed, we need to learn how to make the best use of wikis for learning. This project aims to be an example of how a wiki can be used for learning and to refine, develop and expand on the social practice of using wikis for learning.

:'''This project depends on the participation of its visitors to be successful. So why not join us and share your thoughts by answering the following question?&lt;br&gt; [[Learning_to_learn_a_wiki_way#Why do you want to join the learning to learn a wiki way project?| Why do you want to join this learning project?]]'''

===How could the ''Learning to learn a wiki way'' project be conducted?===
This project is intended to become a piece of [[w:Participatory action research|Participatory action research]] (PAR), a form of [[Action research|action research]]. PAR is a process that occurs when the actions a group takes to empower themselves through creating, modifying or developing a social practice are informed by critical reflection - a process which then prompts further development of the social practice.

PAR comprises four elements; participation, social practice (action), critical reflection and empowerment. PAR is an approach to developing or changing social practices. Social practice can be defined as recurring activities involving people working together. In a learning context, this includes practices ranging from reading (the interaction of reader and author), self study or creating a study guide to implementing national and international educational policies.  These practices include learning in groups, workplace learning, curriculum development and learning within an educational institution. However not all social practices are appropriate as the subject of PAR. This is because all the people involved in PAR should be participants. To be a participant in PAR means taking part in the planning and decision-making process as well as specific tasks. 

In an educational situation, PAR implies learners becoming active learning facilitators. It also implies that the subjects of the research project become its active researchers. Participation in PAR includes the choice of what social practice should be investigated. The action or intervention taken to create, develop or modify the chosen social practice needs to be informed by critical reflection. This means looking at the historical, political, cultural, economic, geographic and other contexts of the social practice before and after any actions or interventions that the participants make. This analysis is used to inform decisions on what future actions or interventions need to be taken to develop the social practice further. This whole process needs to result in the empowerment of all those involved. Crucially, it should also provide support for others to empower themselves from the lessons learned during the Participatory Action Research.
====The boot strap step is recruiting participants====
The project can't take place without participants. However people may be reluctant to commit time and energy in an undefined project. One way of resolving this is for an individual or a small group of people to put together a preliminary project proposal and then start recruiting participants. The project proposal can then be developed by all the participants.
 
====The first step is to refine and clarify the aim of the project====
This should involve setting and prioritizing an overall goal,  specifying objectives, and drafting a preliminary review of the relevant literature. 

:'''Your''' participation is crucial for this step, please add your thoughts '''[[Learning to learn a wiki way#Clarifying the aims of the learning to learn a wiki way project|below]]'''.

====The second step is to plan a set of interventions====
The term intervention is used because it implies that some form of action will be taken as in Participatory '''Action''' Research (PAR). The very act of editing these project pages is an intervention. Interventions can be anything from simply reading or copy editing these pages to creating a project plan to creating and modifying learning materials. Decisions concerning particular interventions are made through consensus with extensive collaboration throughout the development of the project.

A number of methods of accomplishing this have been suggested. One approach is for someone to make edits to the project and the other members of the project to re-edit these. This process continues until a consensus is reached. Another approach is for someone to layout a proposal for an intervention such as creating a guide to action research and see if the other members will join in with this intervention. Yet another method would be to reach a consensus within the group on what interventions need to be made and then plan these collectively. This project will explore and discover various methods for interventions and how to plan them.   

The term intervention is used to avoid implicit assumptions, bias and prejudices in the actions taken. PAR encourages the use of critical analysis of the subjective, political, economic, social and cultural context of all the interventions in the project. The term &quot;intervention&quot; (rather than &quot;action&quot;) implies a degree of neutrality, objectivity and a consensus-driven structure. The set of interventions is planned collectively with as much participation as is possible.

====The third step is to implement these interventions====
Learning to learn together involves drawing related resources together through a diverse range of interests, skills, and participation levels. Intervention is a multi-directional process that is implemented from the outside in (for example, a new participant bringing in a fresh idea), and from the inside out (for example, discussing the project in the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]). Implementations can range from compiling and classifying key learning materials to facilitating collaborations between and among learning groups both inside and outside of the local wiki. The project may also suggest needed projects, materials and resources for topic areas that may be lacking.
====The fourth step is to critically assess and evaluate the consequences of these interventions====
A means of assessing, quantifying and qualifying interventions according to their effectiveness toward the goals and objectives needs to be in place.

&lt;small&gt;See [[w:Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team|Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team]] for an example of article quality assessment. This example is presented as a wiki-aware, consensus-driven assessment tool. This project's aim is NOT to assess Wikiversity content (though such an effort may form in the future, most likely outside of this project) but rather the effectiveness of its own interventions.&lt;/small&gt;
====The fifth step is to repeat the cycle====

===What does the ''Learning to learn a wiki way'' project hope to achieve?===
*Identify and develop:
:*methods of recruiting participants to Wikiversity
:*methods of recruiting participants to a learning project
:*methods of valuing the skills, knowledge and attitudes of all participants
:*ways of [[Supporting Wikiversity participants|supporting participants]] in becoming actively engaged with the Wikiversity.
*Develop effective methods of collaborative learning 
*Identify and develop:
:*methods of planning learning on a wiki
:*a variety of appropriate learning activities and materials
:*methods of managing learning
:*a range of appropriate feedback and assessment techniques
:*methods of evaluating the process, planning, and implementation of the project
*Reflect critically:
:*on your own practice as a participant at Wikiversity
:*on the role of Wikiversity

'''This learning project will only work if it meets the needs of its participants. You can help achieve this by answering the following question:&lt;br&gt; [[Learning_to_learn_a_wiki_way#What_specific_outcomes_do_I_want_from_the_learning_to_learn_a_wiki_way_project.3F | What specific outcomes do I want from this learning project?]]''

===Who will be involved in this project?===
This project is open to everyone (as, indeed, it is the central question which Wikiversity participants hope to answer through their work). As a tactic to move this project forward, active members of the Wikiversity community will be asked if they wish to contribute.
====Active participants====
# [[User:MarkMayhew|MarkMayhew]]
# [[User:Mystictim|Mystictim]]
# [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 16:08, 7 October 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] 07:43, 25 October 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Daanschr|Daanschr]] 13:41, 21 November 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 15:42, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Srinivasasha|Srinivasasha]] 05:39, 1 December 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Executivezen|Executivezen]] 16:12 4 December 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Remi|Remi]] 07:50, 11 December 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:mmizzi|mmizi]] 14.16, 17 December 2006 (CET)
# [[User:Saidkassem|Saidkassem]] 18:36, 22 December 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:CQ|CQ]] 03:12, 25 December 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]] [[User_talk:Dionysios|&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #FF9933;&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]], a Participant in the [[School:Advanced General Studies|&lt;b&gt;Wikiversity School of Advanced General Studies&lt;/b&gt;]], Date: [[w:2007|2007]]-[[w:April 4|04-04]] ([[w:April 4|April 4]], [[w:2007|2007]]) Time: 024501 [[w:UTC|UTC]]
# [[User:Sj|Sj]]
# [[User:Pmhollow|Pmhollow]] 18:39, 24 May 2007 (UTC)
# [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 07:14, 18 December 2007 (UTC)
# --[[User:Jolie|Jolie]] 17:27, 6 October 2008 (UTC)


===How will this project fare over time?===
[[Image:WP1 0 Icon.svg|thumb|right|'''[[w:Version 1.0 Editorial Team|Wikipedia_1.0:]] The Hardcopy''']]
This is an open ended project. As Wikiversity finds its collective identity and builds momentum some learning and teaching [[w:pattern|pattern]]s will become evident. The time line shows the project well under way by December 2006 and workable structures and procedures in place by 2008. The progress continues with changes and tweaks and the user base has become much more diverse than expected. A wide variety of styles have emerged and attempts to homogenize, stratify and unify have met varying degrees of success. Change is nearly constant and it is impossible to predict how the community will change or respond to change.

Unlike Wikipedia, Wikiversity has no plan to reach a [[w:Version 1.0 Editorial Team|Version 1.0]] or any such state of perceptible completion. While Wikiversity is completely supportive of Wikipedia, it is a totally different environment for a totally different purpose. An Encyclopedia, by nature must resemble an authoritative body of highly structured factual information. A learning community has no such restriction. [[Learning to learn a wiki way]] is all about [[w:emergence|emergence]]. As the world and the web change, so Human communities adapt. Wikiversity's [[Wikiversity:Custodians|custodial style]] is more of a [[w:meritocracy|meritocracy]] than a [[w:beaurocracy|beaurocracy]]. ''See [[Wikimedia]] for more about Wikiversity and the sister projects''

==Tactical planning for the project==
Tactical planning is about answering the practical ''How questions'' of the project. This entails identifying methods of archiving the objectives identified in the strategic plan. In effect it is changing strategic questions like &quot;Why is this project needed?&quot; to &quot;How can we create this project?&quot;, or &quot;Who is involved in this project?&quot; to &quot;How will they be involved in the project?&quot; or &quot;What does the project hope to achieve?&quot; to &quot;How will the project achieve these  objectives?&quot;.   
===How can the project recruit and keep active participants?===
So far participants have either found the project themselves or been invited by other members. It would be useful to find out how participants become active members of other learning projects on Wikiversity and beyond.
: '''To start this investigation please could you answer the question:&lt;br&gt;[[Learning to learn a wiki way #Why did you become an active participant of a (learning) project and how did you find out about it? | Why did you become an active participant of a (learning) project and how did you find out about it?]]'''
===How will we refine and clarify the aim of the project?===
====Research background information relevant to the project====

==Project resources==
Even though wiki learning is a new field there are plenty of examples and reports on the subject. It would be helpfully to gather a list of these resources and provide reviews or critiques with reference to this project. [[User:Mystictim|Mystictim]] 12:39, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
Free-Ed.Net is a very active and prolific source of self-learning resources http://www.free-ed.net

===Printed materials===
*Bruner, Jerome S. The Process of Education. Harvard University Press 1962.
*Dewey, John.  [http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Dewey/Dewey_1910a/Dewey_1910_toc.html How we think.] Lexington, Mass: D.C. Heath, 1910.
*Dewey, John. Experience and Education. New York, New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1938.
*Vygotsky, Lev S. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Edited by Cole, Michael; John-Steiner, Vera; Scribner, Sylvia; and Souberman, Ellen. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.
*Bransford, John D.; Brown, Ann L., Cocking, Rodney R. [http://www.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/ How people learn: brain, mind, experience and school]. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999.
*Howard, Pierce J. The Owner's Manual for the Brain: Everyday Applications from Mind-Brain Research, Bard Press, 2000.
*Pinker, Steven. How the Mind Works. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1997.

===World Wide Web===
====Wikiversity====
*[[Wikiversity:Wiki as a tool for learning | Wiki as a tool for learning]]
*[[Supporting Wikiversity participants]]
*[[Developing Wikiversity through action research]]

====Wikipedia====
====Websites====
*[http://www.abjade.com] is the corporate site for a learn to learn project being run in English and Welsh secondary schools.
*[http://www.learntolearn.ac.uk/ Learning how to learn] is the materials website for the above project and is run by the ESRC Teaching and Learning Research Programme. You can log in with the  user name '''guest''' and no password.
*[http://www.rsa.org.uk/newcurriculum/ Open minds] is a project which investigated the way young people are educated in Britain today conducted by the Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts (RSA).
*[http://www.qca.org.uk/7659.html Assessment for learning] is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there. (Assessment Reform Group, 2002)
*[http://kcl.ac.uk/schools/sspp/education/research/cognitive.html Cognitive acceleration] is a method for the development of students' general thinking ability (or general intelligence) which has been developed at King's Collage London.
*[http://www.campaign-for-learning.org.uk/ The Campaign for learning] are working for an inclusive society in which learning is understood, valued and accessible to everyone as of right.
*[http://www.wilderdom.com/experiential/JohnDeweyPhilosophyEducation.html John Dewey: Philosophy of Education] is a good jumping of point to find out more about the granddaddy of learning by doing.
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/index.htm Lev Vygotsky Archive] includes extracts from the writings of the rediscovered master of social learning theory.
*[http://ltc.umanitoba.ca/KnowingKnowledge/index.php/Main_Page Knowing Knowledge] and interesting wiki on the subject of the nature of knowledge in the knowledge age.

====Reports and Studies====
*[http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/aboutlearning About learning] is a report by Demos on learning to learn in English and Welsh secondary schools.
*[http://www.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/ How people learn: brain, mind, experience and school] sets out the latest results from social and cognitive science on learning.
*Technology Innovations in Statistics Education; Volume 1, Issue 1, 2007, Article 4. &quot;Using Wiki to Promote Collaborative Learning in Statistics Education&quot;; Dani Ben-Zvi.
* Bruns, Axel (2007) Beyond Difference: Reconfiguring Education for the User-Led
Age. In Proceedings ICE 3: Ideas, Cyberspace, Education, Ross Priory, Loch
Lomond, Scotland.

====Blogs====
* [http://www.ikiw.org/ Using Wiki in Education] is an interesting blog on this subject.

==Project artifacts==
As the project progresses it will generate content for Wikiversity. If the content is short it should be entered below. When chunks of content become large enough they should be transfered to their own page and a link added below.
===[[Learning to learn a wiki way/reflective blog | Group reflective blog for learning to learn a wiki way]]===
This is a subpage and is intended to be the collective blog for this project. Rather than write to this subpage directly it is a composite page of individual's learning blog pages from the project participants. You can find out more and add your learning blog at the [[Learning to learn a wiki way/reflective blog | Group reflective blog for learning to learn a wiki way]] .
===Investigation of information relevant to this project===
*[[About learning a report by Demos study group]] aims to investigate the implications of this report for Wikiversity in general and this learning project specifically.
* [[How people learn: brain, mind, experience and school]] is a study site for this important book. This book and study site may well be one of the keys to a successful Wikiversity.
===Planning the project===
The central problem as I see it is how do we create active learning communities at Wikiversity. I think that there are numerous solutions to this problem. I would like to explore using Participatory Action Research (PAR) as a method of finding some of these solutions. I’ve never carried out any PAR before so this will be a learning journey for me.
The first step is to recruit participants for the project and find out why they want to join the project and what they want from the project. This will help to clarify the aims and objectives of the project. Please feel free to add your reasons for joining the project and what you hope to get out of the project under the headings listed below. [[User:Mystictim|Mystictim]] 00:26, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
Which page does this change?
====Why do you want to join the learning to learn a wiki way project?====
*I want to find out how to do it with my own class of philosophy students so that we can all learn together in a collabrative, meaningful environment. User: Asewell.
*I find the Wikiversity a very exciting project and want to find out how to use it to develop learning projects in the areas of education, philosophy and computer applications. [[User:Mystictim|Mystictim]] 00:26, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
*I agree with you, Mystictim, that one of the central things we need to do in Wikiversity is to explore and identify ''how learning is to be provided for in Wikiversity'' (as distinct from providing educational material which can be used for autonomous self-study). I think it is a potentially very powerful learning project to carry out within a framework of (participatory) action research - as this is also the focus of my own research (see my [http://cormaggio.org blog] and [http://www.cormaggio.org/wiki/index.php?title=User:Cormac wiki]). I think I have something to contribute here, but I also have a lot to learn - hopefully we will explore, reflexively, what it means to participate in this space and what our reflections tell us about the nature of this space and what can become of it. This whole project (ie Wikiversity) is a deeply exciting one, and this ''particular'' learning project/community has the potential to become a microcosm of the whole, and a resource for all. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 16:03, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
*A &quot;Learning to learn a wiki way&quot; learning/research project is important because of its subject matter, but it is also relevant to the larger issue of establishing a role for research within Wikiversity. At Wikimania this past Summer Jimmy Wales announced the launch of Wikiversity and said, &quot;..... the idea here is to also host learning communities, so people who are actually trying to learn, actually have a place to come and interact and help each other figure out how to learn things. We're also going to be hosting and fostering research into how these kinds of things can be used more effectively.&quot; ([http://wikimania2006.wikimedia.org/wiki/Opening_Plenary_%28transcript%29#Wikiversity_.2826:35.29 source]) The Wikiversity community has been instructed by the Board: &quot;..... guidelines should be developed, *in particular* with regards to collaborative research. We would hope that these guidelines are as much as possible developped on the beta site (in particular collaborative research), so that all languages share a common goal and a few common non negociable rules.&quot; ([http://mail.wikimedia.org/pipermail/foundation-l/2006-August/009074.html source]). If we actually had &quot;Learning to learn a wiki way&quot; as an active research project it would provide an example of how research can be done at Wikiversity and provide us with something to point to when the progress and status of the Wikiversity project is reviewed at the end of the first six months. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 17:10, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
*I'm actually certified in teaching social studies, but technology is my hobby and until I find a teaching position, it's also my current job.  Wikiversity is interesting to me because it blends both technology and education and I can do it within social studies...so for me it's a no-brainer.  Add to that the fact that I grew up with the internet coming to strength and I'm sure it will be around for quite some time.  Participating in wiki is a way to stay current for my future students.  --[[User:Kfitton|Kfitton]] 03:09, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
*I'm exploring ways to involve formal learning organisations and national curriculums and standards into the wikiversity... early days, lots to think about. Apart from that, I'm just generally interested in free and open learning and how to formally credit that with formal educational qualification...--[[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] 09:51, 30 November 2006 (UTC)
*I'm involved in introducing networked learning into business and management education and look to Wikiversity as a fantastic social experiment from which to gain inspiration and to which to direct skeptical onlookers. The audience I serve are extremely skeptical of networked learning, and will probably look at Wikiversity in complete bafflement. There are some crushing barriers we face from concerns within this audience (clients, academics of the slightly older generation) of poor tech-literacy, the turn-off from impenetrable 'geek' languages, generation (Y) and gender issues, intellectual property issues. However, if I haven't already done so via this post, I'm very interested to join a PAR project. My other interest is as a philosopher, so I'm keen to examine on what basis we make claims in this and in other talk pages. [[User:Executivezen|Executivezen]] 20:49, 4 December 2006 (UTC)
*I teach so I always look for the another way to learn. There are many ways to present data, information, and knowledge so, I find there is a need to practice learning. I know my topics, but, I am always looking to improve presentation and material. This looks to me away to find new avenues of professional growth. [[User:Almendoza]] 21 December 2006
*I am a functional writer with the ability to edit content, while also keeping in mind the author's intended message. I feel I am a perfect addition to an open source, &quot;hunger-for-knowledge-drive&quot;, since I have perfected the art of being a student, or as I prefer, ''professional scholar''; all while attending Washburn University, here in Topeka, KS for only the last seven years or so!  Who knows, I might even graduate someday...!&quot;[[User:Ifroggi|Ifroggi]] 07:19, 5 January 2007 (UTC)
*I am part of a community of volunteers that wants to see the global sharing of knowledge and learning expand at a more rapid pace. The curve for knowledge is growing so fast and I see tremendous strides for mankind over this next century as we collaborate on learning and knowledge leveraging this new medium. I volunteer my time and build courses for enrichment programs for grade school and highschool. I am going to find the time in my busy schedule to either post the material in an existing wiki or creat one if appropriate....!&quot;[[User:fjjjd|fjjjd]] 6:30pm, 5 February 16th, 2007 (UTC)
*[[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]] [[User_talk:Dionysios|&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #FF9933;&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]], a Participant in the [[School:Advanced General Studies|&lt;b&gt;Wikiversity School of Advanced General Studies&lt;/b&gt;]], wants to learn to learn a wiki way because [[w:Wiki|wiki]] is still beyond his [[w:Comprehension|comprehension]]; and he wishes to remedy that.  (s) Dionysios | Date: [[w:2007|2007]]-[[w:April 4|04-04]] ([[w:April 4|April 4]], [[w:2007|2007]]) Time: 023201 [[w:UTC|UTC]]
*I want to learn more about effective online learning and teaching techniques using wiki software. Also learning how to use and develop templates and other software modules like possibly incorporating animation into my wikiversity/wikimedia projects and software is a priority once I have some content that I want to bring to the next level. [[User:Pmhollow|Pmhollow]] 18:55, 24 May 2007 (UTC)
*I desire to be a lifelong student.  as such I have always noticed that interactions, critical debate and careful consideration of other peoples insight greatly accelerate that.  too many other online collaborations seek neither education nor insight; limiting potential learning.--[[User:Jolie|Jolie]] 17:12, 6 October 2008 (UTC)
* I like the way of jointly sharing and compiling easy accessible knowledge (Wikipedia and Wikibooks) or learning resource (Wikiversity). When learning on a new subject, it is good to follow a footsteps that guides to the most useful ressources and activities. When no such footsteps exist, I must walk by my own. However, I can create the footsteps while I am walking/learning. So I want to learn how this works. --[[User:Tomaschwutz|tomaschwutz]] 21:02, 21 November 2008 (UTC)
*The reason I would like to join this learning project is because I believe strongly in free and open learning and I am also a lifelong learner. I would like to see a system somehow set up where each project an individual takes can be tracked and some type of crediting be given. Also as each student learns something new that information can be passed on to new wiki users. Also I feel there should be a program developed to make it easier to get started using a wiki and how to keep up with that wiki. I feel the wikiversity is an excellent program and should continue to be developed for future generations.--[[User:Dragondayton|Dragondayton]]
* I have a large WikiHowto online and want to learn how I can make it a more useful and effective collaborative learning tool.I am thinking that perhaps creating 2D or 3D goal-based scenarios according to the writings of Dr. Roger Schank might be better.
* I want to learn programming and feel joining a collaborative project is a good way immersing myself in the habits and languages. [[User:C. Calthrop|C. Calthrop]] 19:47, 9 January 2011 (UTC)
* I always want to learn, know more about everything in the world that interests me, and I like the idea of cooperation between the students themselves, besides the students with the faculty, to further education. That's why I liked Wikiversity in the first place, because it serves both of my interests. I want to participate and learn as much as I can in between my daily schedule, and that's why I want to learn the processes which run this wonderful place. I think this project will help me in that. [[User:Scorpio]] April 30, 2011

====What specific outcomes do I want from the learning to learn a wiki way project?====
*I hope to develop my skills as an online learning facilitator and to eventually earn a living from this activity. [[User:Mystictim|Mystictim]] 00:26, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
* I also hope to develop my own skills as a researcher, an educator and a reflective practitioner - but I also hope that participating in this project can really crystallise for me and others what learning means within a wiki and how it is provided for - something that is still quite fuzzy in my mind, after over two years of thinking and writing about the subject. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 16:03, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
*I'd like to improve my skills and awareness of mediawiki editing, and discuss opportunities to interact wikiversity activity with activities in formal educational organisations.--[[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] 09:53, 30 November 2006 (UTC)
*I'm also hoping that the [http://mobiled.uiah.fi/ MobilEd initiative] will work in with Wikiversity.--[[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] 09:55, 30 November 2006 (UTC)
* This is great! My outcomes are to prepare me/my thinking for a PhD in deconstructivist philosophy of education, courtesy of the discussion. As well as to aid my professional work as a learning technologist. [[User:Executivezen|Executivezen]] 20:54, 4 December 2006 (UTC)
*I'd like to use this project to discuss specific topics in how to improve learning in a wiki environment and then implement those ideas in the content areas that I am working on.  I see a lot of potential for the wiki model of learning, but it is not yet clear to me how to structure lessons that encourage participation and take full advantage of the interactive nature of a wiki.--[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] 13:24, 12 December 2006 (UTC)
* I see a potential in this model, and I hope to contribute (as well as benefit)from some type of alternative(s) to the &quot;My Space&quot; insanity that panders to the lowest, most primitive emotional response in net users. -- Anonymous
* I would like to see Wikiversity and the larger Wikimedia metacommunity become a solid source of reliable content on the Internet. I think it's reasonable, even inevitable that wiki-enabled communities can help shift the paradigm toward an open and fair community model and away from commercialism and corporate overcontrol. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 12:44, 23 December 2006 (UTC)
* I would like to see standard techniques developed and published to help individuals or small teams create new projects that look active and interesting to newcomers.  I fear Wikiversity will stagnate if it cannot quickly create and support myriads of little learning teams and communities.  [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 11:31, 25 January 2007 (UTC)
* Wikiversity needs to become a comprehensive and easy to use source of information for every project that is started. Users need to know exactly what projects are complete, in test, and in development. Otherwise Wikiversity will never have any real credibility with the general public. Once this is attained, combined with mechanisms to enforce curriculum standards with a quality assurance process, the ability to use multimedia, and the ability to use open source courseware, then the Wikiversity project will have truly become a useful learning tool. The results of a useful English language Wikiversity is that it would become a catalyst for global change among peoples that can not or will not pay or participate in traditional modes of instruction. Think of the possibilities for a person living in a slum of Lagos Nigeria, for example, who has access to the Internet and someday finds some quality Wikiversity projects that can help him test out of regular college courses and actually make college affordable while providing real world skills to help pay his/her way through school. For instance a good course in Cantonese and Mandarin could give him/her the advantage to work at and start a local export business for a Chinese manufacturing firm in Guangzhou while creating more local employment opportunities since he would have familiarity with their native Chinese dialect and the written language. There are many situations like this around the English reading “third” world that could benefit from this form of instruction. Finally the fact that Wikiversity can be edited by anyone is not a fatal flaw in itself. It should be communicated as an opportunity to review the sources and reinforce one’s understanding of the subject. [[User:Pmhollow|Pmhollow]] 20:43, 24 May 2007 (UTC)
*an evolution of the internet itself, where information is organized allowing the most cursory review of topic, to indepth interactive community involvement and research, right down towards repetitve personal investigation. The ability to both move wiki towards this desired capability ( a continuum if you will of interactions, from highly definitional to personal investigation) AND an effort to be changed by wiki- to understand its goals and allow it to evolve to whatever new exciting role it will have in informational history.
--[[User:Jolie|Jolie]] 17:24, 6 October 2008 (UTC)
* I hope to learn how I can best use wikiversity and sister projects in various ways. --[[User:Tomaschwutz|tomaschwutz]] 22:27, 21 November 2008 (UTC)
*I would like to see a comprehensive plan for each project like step by step lesson plans, quizzes, assignments and so on. That covers a particular subject from beginning to end. Also I would like to see away to track each project or course I am taking from my page, that could possible also show what I have completed and not completed. [[Dragondayton]]

====Why did you become an active participant of a (learning) project and how did you find out about it?====
# I've become an active participant in this learning project because I need a set of tools for creating online learning projects. Part of my motivation for this is that I would like to earn a living as an online learning facilitator. A stronger motivation for me is that this specific project and the Wikiversity in general matches many of my beliefs and desires. Doing social useful work is an important value for me. This project provides a space were I can put my skills and knowledge to good use.&lt;br&gt;I arrived here by a round about route. I discovered Wikibooks earlier last year when I was actively searching for collaborative projects around creating learning materials. I found the discussion about deleting Wikiversity and the proposal to establish a separate project by accident. From time to time I'd come back to check the progress of establishing Wikiversity as a separate project. I signed up in August and setup this project in September. [[User:Mystictim|Mystictim]] 20 December 2006
# [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]] [[User_talk:Dionysios|&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #FF9933;&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]], a Participant in the [[School:Advanced General Studies|&lt;b&gt;Wikiversity School of Advanced General Studies&lt;/b&gt;]], has joined the '''Learning a Wiki Way Project''' because he has a [[w:Generalization|&lt;b&gt;broad general interest&lt;/b&gt;]] in wiki learning.  As with [[User:Mystictim|&lt;b&gt;Mystictim&lt;/b&gt;]] [[User_talk:Mystictim|&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #FF9933;&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]], [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]] would like to earn his living online, or, at least in the case of [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]], to earn a major portion of his living online.  And, too, as with [[User:Mystictim|&lt;b&gt;Mystictim&lt;/b&gt;]], this specific project and Wikiversity in general has a certain resonance with many of the core values and desires of [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]].  And, too, as with [[User:Mystictim|&lt;b&gt;Mystictim&lt;/b&gt;]], [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]] has an abiding interest in '''Good Work''', in the case of [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]], the '''Good Work''' as espoused by [[w:Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|&lt;b&gt;Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi&lt;/b&gt;]], [[w:William Damon|&lt;b&gt;William Damon&lt;/b&gt;]], and [[w:Howard Gardner|&lt;b&gt;Howard Gardner&lt;/b&gt;]] at the [http://goodworkproject.org/ &lt;b&gt;Good Work Project&lt;/b&gt;].  Probably it was searching '''[[Wikiversity]]''' in the general area of '''[[Learning]]''' that led this Participant to the'''Learning to Learn a Wiki Way Project'''.  (s) [[User:Dionysios|&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;]], Date: [[w:2007|2007]]-[[w:April 4|04-04]] ([[w:April 4|April 4]], [[w:2007|2007]]) Time: 035501 [[w:UTC|UTC]]
# ...  the route of finding this project was long and confusing.  I still am trying to understand what is the best way to contribute and intereact with wiki, given time constraints.  I have carefully read through the text, attempting to intereact with the project as directed.  I am intrigued and interested in learning but somewhat concerned.  most dates range from 06 to early 07.  almost a full two years later- have intereations ceased? is there still a community interested in the useful topic?  In an attempt at further interactions I will seek out active participants..--[[User:Jolie|Jolie]] 17:34, 6 October 2008 (UTC)
# I am not decided yet to become an acitve member of this project. I found a link to this project when i was looking for ways to learn about wikiversity. --[[User:Tomaschwutz|tomaschwutz]] 22:31, 21 November 2008 (UTC)
# My concerns are the same as those of User:Jolie and User:Tomaschwutz|tomaschwutz. I have time constraints as well, and I'm not sure I can be regular at this thing. I won't leave behind too long gaps, if possible, but I doubt it, and that's what's keeping me from becoming an active member in this project. --[[User:Scorpio]] April 30, 2011
# I was exploring wikipedia, marveling at the amount of information that has been collected. That got me to the wikimedia group, which brought me here. I am also a huge proponent of sources of free online learning. I haven't gotten involved in adding information yet (except for removing a typo), but I fully intend to.

====Clarifying the aims of the learning to learn a wiki way project====
Perhaps begin with a Wikiversity member commitment to the accurate documentation of information provided within the Wikiversity knowledge relay, as well as providing all necessary works citations that support posted documentation. 
Also, make a goal to build standards of liability in  maintaining a positive reputation concerning academic fortitude. Making a commitment to assist others in setting and reaching their educational learning goals through positive peer encouragement, friendly competition/and or challenges, offering peer-based tutorial support..but not requiring a participation quota for any reason. to create a volunteer based member task group to assist in defining the overall tasks yet to be accomplished, outlining future objectives, finding new creative learning methods, to collaborate, research and compare what has, and has not worked in the past for similar entities; making sure to avoid repeating any previously established 'learning blunders'. --[[User:Ifroggi|Ifroggi]] 09:19, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

Try using the [[Technical writing specification|Requirements Writing Workshop]] as a framework for identifying the user goals, functions, and structures of your proposed system.  I'd appreciate your feedback.  [[User:TWFred|TWFred]] 15:53, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

===[[Participations]] ===

A nearly two year gap in active participation cannot be ignored.  since the heart of this project is participation;  intended action must be stated, interaction solicited and conversation continued.

I will begin a general search for how wikidiversity projects are led.  does the leader have a permanent role in the evolution of his project?  does the leader pursue the stated project to completion or solicit, wait for, or delay project completion on participants? Does an interested individual have the moral and ethical right to alter or extend underlying aims and intended interactions?  What is the moral and ethical duty of a intended participant to a slowly progressing, or unprogressing project? --[[User:Jolie|Jolie]] 17:55, 6 October 2008 (UTC)
:Those are wonderful questions, and I'd be very interested to know the answers, myself.  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:39, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

===[[Planning for Useful Interventions; A personal experiment]] ===

I will be restarting this project.  I will begin an investigation into a topic of interest to me; I will then perform an action by stating a summary of my investigation on my home page, here in Wikiversity.  I will track any occurring interventions and analyze them.  how helpful are they?

One natural question, is that when one is learning; at what point and in what way is the most useful writing generated.  Are question useful?  do questions generate more interventions?

Since expertise is a quality that cannot be ignored, the person beginning the investigation should wield some expertise in this area.  Thus, I being a chemist at a gasoline refinery will be investigating gasoline and specifically the social impact of gasoline. I intend to write my beginning statement about gasoline around noon, tuesday OCT 7.

(it would be nice to coin a word that describes the process of stating information on a wikipage for the purpose of creating conversation and eliciting participation from the wiki community.)  

Any way, once this done feel free to interact. the next step is tricky.  not only do I need do know how many people interact I need to know how many people COULD interact with the Topic.

What you have interacted MORE if the statement was said differently?  did you have an opinion and point of view that could have been stated?  did you feel that the statement engaged you?  lots of people have something to say about gasoline, and its effect on your behavior and our society.  

I think that the statement might fail to elicit expertise in the wiki community in:

*Scope (appropriate scope for the topic, not too general or specific)
*Not engaging the reader
*Clarity 
*Relevancy 

please score the post for the four characteristics (1-5) 1 being the worse and 5 being the best.

should you want you can score this entry, please put scores (as well as comments) on the discussion page.  Make sure you indicate what statement you are scoring.  I will make sure each statement has a bold heading.

I will track questions/statement ratio;  complexity of the post;  size of the post; and keep track of how many intereactions, the average score, and charactererize any posted comments.

I will analyze the average score in an attempt to describe the posting style that yields the best wiki intereaction.

thank you for your help.  again please feel free to give any suggestion for improving or altering the new experiment.
--[[User:Jolie|Jolie]] 13:47, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

*Is there a way members can be contacted so we can all stay connected? Also maybe we should think about setting up a way to asign or volunter to do any projects we all agree upon.I am not sure where we are going with this project, so maybe someone should let us know where we currently are at, and what are the future plans. [[Dragondayton]]

[[Category:Wiki]]
[[Category:Wikiversity]]
[[Category:Wiki and education]]
[[Category:Research projects]]
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[[Category:Learning about Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="668" sha1="mivx4ver4im9riivjdgboeye0euy74t" xml:space="preserve">This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant ''[[BCP/Kniphofia uvaria|Kniphofia uvaria]]'' (Red Hot Poker).

{{bcp3-recentmsg}}

=====Recent Logs=====

*--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 09:36, 30 June 2007 (UTC)
*--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 15:18, 7 July 2026 (UTC)

=====Archived Logs=====

(If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).

*(no archived logs yet)


[[Category:Bloom Clock Logs]]</text>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Mohamed yusuf aadan|Mohamed yusuf aadan]] ([[User_talk:Mohamed yusuf aadan|talk]]) to last version by [[User:7yl4r|7yl4r]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="691" sha1="mm8m2n03umwx99d0vfn75w3kfj71h8h" xml:space="preserve">Is this meant to be more of a history, or is it intended to look at the science (so far) behind it all?  What did you have in mind for this course?  ( 19:06, 18 April 2011‎ 65.60.81.66 )

==Replace this with Redirect AI==
This seems to be abandoned and does not contain much content. The only relevant linked content can be found at [[Artificial_intelligence/prospects]] and [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/January-February-2005/feature_sokis_janfeb05.msp] I suggest that this page be replaced with a redirect to the existing, slightly better maintained page on [[AI]]. If there are no objections I'll come back in a while and do it.--[[User:7yl4r|7yl4r]] 17:59, 15 November 2011 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>mm8m2n03umwx99d0vfn75w3kfj71h8h</sha1>
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      <text bytes="3088" sha1="94zrqiikjcmtcgbrifjt5f3jgq87tvj" xml:space="preserve">
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260707.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260707.pdf|B]] ||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Complex analysis in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>171005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817859</id>
      <parentid>2817804</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T14:21:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/*  Residue Integrals  */</comment>
      <origin>2817859</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5296" sha1="lvkp0fpdim9a1g44sf02ej59p8d1mx4" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260707.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]</text>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>2963539</id>
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      <comment>Update from [[d:Special:GoToLinkedPage/enwiki/Q5625028|master]] using [[mw:Synchronizer| #Synchronizer]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s</title>
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      <comment>/* 14 January 1873, Tuesday */</comment>
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      <text bytes="28041" sha1="0w6tbvwwytzjgoqol2rdfng2gq7w8lk" xml:space="preserve">==Time Line==
[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] 1870s [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==1870==
&quot;Until 1870 all of the money women earned belonged to their husbands, and until 1882 their property did too, even after a divorce or separation.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698 of 1203)

In 1870 Parliament debated and defeated the first bill for women's suffrage, but allowed &quot;women who owned property ... to stand for election to school boards.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698–699 of 1203)

&quot;The bulk of Irish farmers did not own their land, and instead leased it from landlords, the majority of whom lived in England. In 1870, only 3 percent of agricultural holdings were occupied by owners.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (742 of 1203)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Arthur Sullivan were at the same dinner party in 1870?

Another dinner party had as guests Charles Dickens, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Tenniel and George Du Maurier.

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1871==
Although Queen Victoria had opened Parliament for the first time in February 1866, when people saw her for the first time in years as her open carriage made its way, she was unpopular because it seemed she was not working. Gladstone was Prime Minister.&lt;blockquote&gt;Between 1871 and 1874, eighty-five Republican Clubs were founded in Britain, protesting, among other things, the &quot;expensiveness and uselessness of the monarchy&quot; and Bertie's &quot;immoral example.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;Baird, Julia. ''Victoria the Queen, an Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire''. Random House, 2016. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria-the-queen/id953835024.&lt;/ref&gt; (617 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&quot;The 1871 Royal Commission on the Contagious Diseases Acts ... declared there was no comparison to be made between prostitutes and their clients: 'With the one sex the offence is committed as a matter of gain, with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (704 of 1203)

=== January ===
Germany is united under King William I of Prussia. Julia Baird says, &quot;At the same time, Italy captured and annexed the Papal States, which had been under the direct rule of the Pope since the 700s and had lost their protector in Napoleon III.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (646 of 1203)

==== 4 January 1871, Wednesday ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;INVITATION BALL.
&lt;p&gt;On Wednesday evening last Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards gave an invitation ball, which was held in the Drapers’ Hall (kindly placed at their disposal by the Drapers’ Company). The following ladies and gentlemen were amongst those who received invitations The Marquis and Marchioness of Hertford; the Earl and Countess of Aylesford; Lady A. N. Finch, Lord Guernsey, and the Hon. Mr. Finch; Lord and Lady Leigh and Miss Leigh; Lord and Lady Henley and Miss Henley, Miss Elwes, Lord and Lady Wrottealey, Lord and Lady Manners; C. N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P.; Captain, Mrs., and Miss Adams; E. Petre, Esq., and Lady Gwendoline Petre; J. Beech, Esq., Mrs. and Miss Beech, and Mr. Beech, jun.; Mr. and Mrs. Turner; Mr. and Mrs. Fetherstone Dilke, Mrs. and the Misses Fetherstone, Mr. Fetherstone, and Mr. Beaumont Fetherstone; Mr. and Mrs. P. A. Muntz; Captain and Mrs. Boultbee, of Knowle; Mr. C. M. Caldecott, Mrs. Caldecott, and the Misses Caldecott; the Rev. A. Fanshawe and Mrs. Fanshawe; Captain and Mrs. Battine; the Rev. S. C. Spencer Smith; the Rev. R. H. Baynes, M.A., vicar of St. Michael’s; the Rev. H. T. Harris, (Christ Church); General and Mr. Richmond Jones; Colonel F. Chaplin, and the Officers of the 4th Dragoon Guards, stationed at Northampton; Captain Thornelow, and the Officers of the Royal Artillery, at Weedon; the officers of the 4th Royal Regiment at Weedon; Mr. and Mrs. E. Wood; Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Wood; the Colonel and officers of the First Warwickshire Militia; Mrs. and Miss Alston, and Mr. Alston, jun., of Elmdon; Mr. and Mrs. F. Paget; Mr. and Mrs. Gulson; Captain Thomson; Captain and Mrs. Raleigh King; Mrs. Phillipson; Lord and Lady Mountgarret; the Honourable Miss Butler; Mr. and Mrs. Courtenay Lord; the Hon. Mrs. Twistleton; Mr. and the Misses Conant; Captain and Mrs. J. Marsland; Major and Mrs. Edlman; Mr. and Mrs. Astley; Mr. T. Lant, Mr. R. Lant and Mr. J. Lant, Mrs. and Miss Lant; Mr. W. T. Cavendish; Mr. and Mrs. A. Rotherham; the Marquis of Ormonde, of the first Life Guards; the Earl of Calludon, of the First Life Guards; Mrs. and the Misses Hobson; Mr P. Hobson, and Mrs. Hobson; Mr. and Mrs. Soames; Mr. and Mrs. Adderley, Sir John Rae Reid; Capt. and Mrs. Townshend, of Caldecote Hall; Lieut.-Colonel Swinfen and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Leeds; Capt. Marsden and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Birmingham; Colonel, Mrs., and Miss Bourne; Mr. and Mrs. Wyley Lord; Captain and Mrs. Thursby; Mr. and Mrs Morrice; Lieut.-Colonel Wirgman; Mr. and Mrs. J. Rotherham; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]]; Mr. and Mrs. Rotherham; Mr and Mrs John Sankey and the Misses Sankey; Mrs. and the Misses Murphy; Mr. Bibby (4th Hussars), Captain Gist (7th Hussars), Mr. Gregg (8th Hussars), Mr. Hamilton (7th Dragoon Guards), Colonel Rattray, Mr and Mrs. R. Boyd, &amp;c, &amp;c.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The string band of the 5th Dragoon Guards, under the direction of Mr. Sidney Jones, performed the following selection of music:— Quadrille, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Marian; Galop, Bonderbryllup; Lancers, Knight of St. Patrick; Valse, Hydropaten; Galop, Flick and Flock; Quadrille, Princess of Trebizonde; Valse, the Belle of the Ball; Galop, the Fox Hunters; Valse, the Dragoon Guards; Lancers, the Gaiety; Valse, the Beautiful Danube; Valse, Wiener Kinder; Quadrille, the Fest; Galop, the Village Rose; Valse, the Geraldine; Lancers, Merry Tunes; Galop, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Various; Galop, Glorioso.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Invitation Ball.&quot; ''Coventry Standard'' 6 January 1871, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000683/18710106/100/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== February ===

==== Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball ====
1871 February 17, Friday, the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; hosted a ball in Birmingham:&lt;blockquote&gt;LEAMINGTON.

B&lt;small&gt;ACHELORS'&lt;/small&gt; B&lt;small&gt;ALL&lt;/small&gt;.&lt;p&gt;— Last night the bachelors of the Tennis Court Club gave a grand ball at the Royal Assembly Rooms, Regent Street. The ball was one of the most brilliant of the season, nearly four hundred of the ''élite'' of the town and neighbourhood having accepted the invitation of the bachelors. The ballroom was specially fitted up for the occasion, and a splendid supper was served in the adjoining rooms, where refreshments were also provided. Coote and Tiney's band was specially engaged for the occasion, and played a selection of the newest and most popular dance music. Amongst the distinguished guests present were — The High Sheriff and Mrs. J. T. Arkwright, Lady Arbuthnott, Lord and Lady Conyers, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], Viscount and Viscountess Mountgarret and the Hon. Miss Butler, Sir John and Lady Blois, Sir Thomas Biddulph, the Hon. Miss Somerville, Sir William and Lady Fairfax, the Hon. Charles L. Butler, Rev. Sir John Rae, General and Mrs. Richmond Jones, Major Eldman, Major and Mrs. James Ashton, Major and Mrs. Boothby, Colonel Ruttie, Colonel Duberly, Colonel and Mrs. Machen, Colonel Rattray, Capt. and Mrs. Kennedy, Capt. W. J. Hall, Capt. Hodge, Capt. and Mrs. Morgan, Capt. and Mrs. Pearse, Capt. Roberts, Capt. Story, Mr. and Mrs. Featherstone Dilke (Maxstoke Castle) and Miss Dixie, Mr. C. M., Miss, and Miss M. A. Caldecott (Holbrooke Grange), Mr. and Mrs. J. Dugdale (Wroxhall Abbey), Mr. E. Greaves, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. C. L. Adderley (Hams Hall), and Capt. and Mrs. Hatherall. Several of the officers from the dragoons and artillery at Coventry and Birmingham were also present. The bachelors who gave the ball were twenty-eight in number.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Leamington.&quot; &quot;District News.&quot; ''Birmingham Morning News'' 18 February 1871, Saturday: 7 [of 8, print and digital], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005826/18710218/114/0007. Print and digital title are the same.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== March ===

=== April ===

==== 18 April 1871 ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Karl Marx “was commissioned by the General Council of the International to write a pamphlet about the Paris [377–378] Commune.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Smee, Sebastian. ''Paris in Ruins: Love, War, and the Birth of Impressionism''. W. W. Norton, 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|377–378 of 667}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===May===

==== 9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;THE QUEEN'S DRAWING-ROOM.

The Queen held a Drawing-room at Buckingham Palace on Tuesday afternoon. The Priuce of Wales, Prince Arthur, Prince Leopold, and Princess Beatrice were present. Her Majesty, accompanied by the Prince of Wales and the other members of the royal family, entered the Throne Room shortly after three o'clock. The Queen wore a black moire antique dress with a train, long white tulle veil with a coronet of diamonds. Her Majesty also wore a necklace of diamonds and amethysts, the Riband and Star of the Order of the Garter, the Orders of Victoria and Albert and Louise of Prussia, and the Saxe Coburg and Gotha Family Order. Princess Beatrice wore a dress of white tulle over a rich white silk petticoat looped up with lilies of the valley and apple blossom; ornaments — pearls and diamonds.

The presentations to Her Majesty were about 280 in number, and included the following:— Mrs Atlay, by the Countess Grey; Miss Backhouse, by her mother, Mrs Backhouse; Miss Charlesworth, by her aunt, Frances Lady Hawke; Miss Backhouse Fox, by her aunt, Mrs Backhouse; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], by her mother, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|the Hon. Mrs Howard]]; the Hon. Gwendoline Fitz-Alan Howard, by the Duchess of Sutherland; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Alice Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Louisa Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; Miss Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Miss Agnes Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Sir Henry Ingilby, Bart., by Earl Russell; Mrs Frank Lascelles, by Lady Edward Cavendish; Mrs Gerald Liddell, marriage, by the Countess of Normanby.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Official News.&quot; ''Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer'' 11 May 1871, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000686/18710511/074/0003. Same print title and p.n.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''24 May 1871, Wednesday''': Derby Day. Baron Rothschild's Favonius won. The Prince of Wales attended.

June
July
August
September
===October===
'''October 1871'''&lt;blockquote&gt;At Londesborough Lodge near Scarborough, where Lady Londesborough gave a royal house party in October 1871, not only [ 41/42 ] were the bathrooms few but the drains seeped into the drinking water. Several guests, including the Prince [of Wales] and his groom and Lord Chesterfield, contracted typhoid fever. When Chesterfield and the groom died, the doctors abandoned hope for the Prince.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|41–42}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Prince of Wales recovered on 14 December 1871.

November
December

==1872==
January
February
March
April
===May===
'''29 May 1872, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
===August===
'''August 1872''': The &quot;dance on the cruiser Ariadne&quot; probably occurred in August 1872:&lt;blockquote&gt;When his [the Prince of Wales'] brother, the Duke of Edinburgh, married the attractive Grand Duchess Marie, daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, her family made a fuss because she was not granted precedence above the Princess of Wales. Albert Edward soothed ruffled feelings by inviting the Tsarevitch and his wife Marie Feodorovna (who was Alexandra's sister) to stay for two months and be entertained at Cowes. ...&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

... At the dance on the cruiser Ariadne which the Prince gave in honour of the Tsarevitch and his Grand Duchess,&quot; Lord Randolph Churchill met the 19-year-old &quot;Miss Jennie Jerome of New York.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42–43}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

September
October
November
December

==1873==

=== January ===

==== 14 January 1873, Tuesday ====
Ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge&lt;blockquote&gt;The Marquis of Hartington gave a ball last evening at the Chief Secretary's Lodge, to their Excellencies the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess Spencer, who were accompanied by the Dowager Countess Spencer, the Ladies Sarah and Victoria Spencer and the Hon Robert Spencer, Lord and Lady Charles Bruce, and Major Stirling, A D C.

The following had the honour of receiving invitations to meet their Excellencies — The Duke of Leinster, the Marquis and Marchioness of Kildare, the Ladies Fitzgerald, the Marquis and Marchioness of Drogheda, the Earl and Countess of Listowel, Lord and Lady Edward Cavendish, the Earl of Charleville, the Lord Chancellor and Lady O'Hagan, Viscount, Viscountess, the Hon Misses, and Hon Henry Monck; the Archbishop of Dublin, the Hon Mrs and the Misses Trench; Lord Talbot de Malahide and the Hon Francis Talbot, Lord and Lady Sandhurst and Captain Bang, A D C; Lady Cloncurry, Hon Emily and Hon Mary Lawless, Viscount, Viscountess, Hon Georgiana, and Hon Beatrice [de?] Vesci; Lord and Lady Kilmaize [?], Hon Gertrude [?] Browze, Lord and Lady Ventry, Hon Norah Westenra, Lord and Lady Athlumney, Lord, Lady, and Hon D Plunket, M P; Viscountess and the Hon. Miss Netterivlle, Capt the Hon Mrs Vesey, Captain and Lady Julia Follett, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guiness and the Ladies White, the Hon H W L Corry, Lord and Lady and the Hon Miss O'Neill, Viscount Hawarden, the Hon Florence Maude, the Hon. Clementina Maude, the Hon Jenico and Mrs Preston, the Hon Henry Leeson, Colonel and the Hon Mrs Caulfield, 

and the Hon the Hoa Mr and the and Lady Mr P, the : Colonel Mrs and the Misses Hon L and Mrs Curzon Breed the Hon Margaret, ard the Stroore jon Charles Kourke, 1s Alfred and Lady Hon Howard! ie Grattan rm , Sir Edwa and M, 3 Dr and Miss ribur Lady, and 8 Borough, M: Miss Corrigan : Mrand Mrs and Mins Dowre, and is fs and ‘Mics Mrs Mr and Mre DrJMrs, and Ricci; De ly Hodson, Mr, ire, ond Huband; Mr ArtburHuband, Mi: os Mrs Arthur Hume, Dr Jepben and Miss ADC; Captein ge ko irwan; Mr Justice Lawson ire Lawson, Mr and Mrs W Le Fanu, Mr, Mra, the Lord and Lad Mayoresr, and the Misses 3 the Lord Chief and Jobn 3 Lady, and Miss Power, 4. le; Power, the Rolle, Mrs and Miss P; Mise Rac tand Mrs Mooreom, A ‘Sir Thomas Led: Captain and M: ADC, Mr Grapville Milner, Capt, Mr ed Ss Talbot, and the bees White; John Stewart Mr Mrs and and the Hon lr Fitzgerald, Mr Justice Mr MP, Mrs Sherlock ; Mr P, Sheriock, the Right Hi Mr Ke Capt K. RN; Lord and ire, and Miss Nugent: the Misses Maude and eron, M ‘rs Watters, Uol aed lew, eral and Mrs Palles, the Solicit: Butler, r Butler, Col and #rs Colthurst Vesey, and Lake; Lad and the Misses Mr EO Lady Fanny, a ion Mr and Mrs Leopard M. Burke, Mr G and Mrs G ir Vance, MP, Mrs and Miss Vance ; ‘ol and ‘et dall, Col Goo¢iake aud Miss Alexander, Mr Mr Mesand Miss wand the tes Juste ir and Mrs Mazlere Brad; jajor, Mrs, and Mirs Mr, iy. and Mrs ire Power, Mr Daron ir Henry Yates Thomp- Mry, and ES fas Mrs Wallace, Major Mrs L O Ferrall and rs and and Mrs Mrs and the Misses Mrs J Warren, joha Gray, re, and Kane, Mrs and G Courtenay, De Mr Mr Bellew, Drand Mrs Nediey, Dr and jutten, ADC; Grr abd tim JM ‘Sir Lats RN, of ber Ma: ship Van- + and Officers(4) Guards; juerars ; Colonel Ross Officers (4), Hawkins and (4), Gloster and Officers (4), 97th ment&lt;/blockquote&gt;February
March
April
===May===
'''28 May 1873, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1874==
January
February
March
April
===May===

==== 1874 May, Early ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;As monarchists’ hopes flared, the Catholic Church, too, enjoyed a conspicuous revival. The National Assembly approved a design for a new basilica for Paris. Intended as an act of collective atonement, Sacré-Coeur was to perch atop Montmartre, immediately above where Nadar’s balloons had been launched and where the radicals’ insurrection had broken out. Excavations began in early May 1874 ....

But the focus of the penance the basilica was intended to embody gradually shifted from the moral decline of French society in general to the despicable excesses of the Commune. In 1872 Archbishop Darboy’s successor claimed to have had a vision as he climbed the Butte Montmartre. The clouds dispersed, and he realized that it was there, “where the martyrs” were (he meant the murdered generals Lecomte and Clément-Thomas), that a new church should be built. And when the Assembly voted to proceed with the construction, legislators specified that its purpose was to “expiate the crimes of the Commune.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; (464 of 667)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===June===
'''3 June 1874, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''8 December 1874, Tuesday''': &quot;CHATSWORTH, Tuesday, December 8th, 1874. — We are come to the last slide of the Chatsworth magic lantern: the Duke of Cambridge and his equerry, a funny little man called Tyrwhitt, of no particular age, in a grey wig; Lord Carlingford and Ly. Waldegrave, the Spencers, Mr. Leveson, Cavendish.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ladylucycavendish.blogspot.com/2010/12/08dec1874-chatsworth-magic-lantern.html|title=Lady Lucy Cavendish: 08Dec1874, The Chatsworth Magic Lantern|last=H|first=Denise|date=2010-12-04|website=Lady Lucy Cavendish|access-date=2025-06-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==1875==
Disraeli's progressive legislation for labor rights:&lt;blockquote&gt;In 1875, he passed a series of enlightened acts protecting labor rights, arguing they were as important as property rights. Two of the laws ensured that workers would have the same recourse as employers when contracts were breached, and made peaceful picketing legal, protecting unions from charges of conspiracy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (578 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;After women who owned property were allowed by Parliament to stand for local school-board elections in 1870, &quot;Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, the first woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain — in 1865 — stood and was elected to her local board five years later.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (199 of 1203)

The relationship between Swinburne and Lord Houghton:&lt;blockquote&gt;...not all Lord Houghton's children appreciated the catholicity of &quot;Papa's&quot; taste in friends: &quot;Swinburne (in a very excited state) came in in the evening,&quot; wrote Florence Milnes to her brother in 1875: &quot;He is madder than ever, to my astonishment he flopped down on one knee in front of me, &amp; announced that my hair had grown darker. This was rather embarrassing, and he is also so deaf now, which does not make it easier to talk to him.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Pope-Hennessy Lord Crewe.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|5}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''26 May 1875, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales attended, as did a number of others of the royal family, including Princess Louise and Lorne.

June
July
===August===
'''August through October 1875''' Richard Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and son Robert Milnes toured the U.S. and Canada:&lt;blockquote&gt;They set off in the steamer s.s Sarmatian from Liverpool in August 1875, stopping at Ireland to pick up the usual load of emigrants bound for the U.S.A. The most interesting among the passengers was 'Mr. Butler, author of Erewhon, who is very amusing and clever though infidel,' but, although he played whist with Samuel Butler, the young man was far more interested in the Eustace Smiths (parents of his friend W. H. Smith), and in a Canadian family named Macpherson, the youngest of whose two daughters, the dark-eyed Isobel, caught his fancy: he saw them afterwards in Toronto, and when they parted she gave him two larger than carte-de-visite photographs of herself, he gave her a smaller one of himself together with the inevitable volume of his father's verse.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|10}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;September
October
November
December

==1876==
Disraeli pushed through the Cruelty to Animals Act in order to please Queen Victoria. This act &quot;forced researchers to demonstrate that any experiments with animals involving pain were absolutely necessary, and ensured they would be anesthetized if so.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (679 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''11 May 1876''': In the midst of the Aylesford scandal, the Prince of Wales returned from a journey to Egypt and India, etc.:&lt;blockquote&gt;However harassed and exhausted, the Prince and Princess of Wales would put up a good show. Within an hour of their arrival home they set forth to attend a gala performance at Covent Garden Opera House. It was a brave decision to face the public and allow an immediate opportunity for demonstration. The Prince and Princess were rewarded when the audience rose to its feet to give them a standing ovation before the start of every act, as well as at the end, of Verdi's Ballo in Maschera.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|63}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''27 May 1877''': Lily Langtry:&lt;blockquote&gt;Her big moment on May 27, 1877, when Sir Allen Young, the arctic explorer, invited her to late supper in his house, where it had been arranged that the Prince of Wales should meet her after the opera. The result was all that could have been expected. Mrs. Langtry became the Prince's first openly recognised mistress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|69}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''31 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales did not attend, as he was ill.

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1877==
&quot;In 1877, unemployment was 4.7 percent; by 1879, it had risen to 11.4 percent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (690 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''30 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''15 December 1877'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On Dec. 15, 1877, the Queen honoured Lord Beaconsfield, the Premier, with a visit at Hughenden Manor. Her Majesty, accompanied by Princess Beatrice and attended by General Ponsonby and the Marchioness of Ely, left Windsor at 12.40 and proceeded by special train to High Wycombe, which was reached at 1.15. The Premier received the Queen at the station. A lofty triumphal arch spanned the entrance to the station-yard, and beneath this the royal party drove into the gaily decorated little town. The reception along the route was of the heartiest, and the drive of two miles to Hughenden was one long triumph. Lord Beaconsfield, who had preceded the party, welcomed the Queen at his own door. Lunch was served, and her Majesty remained about two hours. Before leaving she planted a memorial tree.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Queen's Glorious Reign.&quot; ''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, May 27, 1899; pp. 757–765?; Issue 3136. Queen's Glorious Reign [Supplement]: 762?&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==1878==
January
February
March
April
May
===June===
'''5 June 1878, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

July
August
September
October
===November===
'''8 November 1878''': from the journal of George, Duke of Cambridge:&lt;blockquote&gt;''November'' 8. — Gave farewell diner to the Lornes; Louise and Lorne, Augusta, Mary and Francis, Arthur, Leopold, Gleichens, J. Macdonald and self, and played at Nap afterwards. It was a good and nice little dinner.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sheppard, Edgar, Ed. ''George, Duke of Cambridge: A Memoir of His Private Life, Based on the Journals and Correspondence of His Royal Highness''. Vol. 2, 1871–1904. New York: Longmans, Green, 1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=dFoMAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;December

==1879==
===January===
'''12 January 1879'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On 12 January 1879 Robert Milnes came of age, an event celebrated at Fryston by a tenants' ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''28 January 1879''': Brett &quot;Harte kicked off his tour at the Crystal Palace in Sydenham on January 28, 1879.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nissen, Alex. ''Brett Harte: Prince and Pauper''. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|174}}

February
March

===April===
'''Early April 1879''' or so, probably, Bret Harte got &quot;an invitation to dine the same evening with Arthur Sullivan and the Prince of Wales&quot; as a dinner in Birmingham where Harte met T. Edgar Pemberton.&lt;ref&gt;Scharnhorst, Gary. ''Bret Harte: Opening the American Literary West''. Norman, OK: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|152}}
===May===
'''28 May 1879, Wednesday''': Derby Day; the Prince and Princess of Wales attended.

===June===
'''June 1879''', Robert Milnes became engaged to &quot;Sibyl Marcia, a daughter of a North-country baronet, Sir Frederick Graham of Netherby.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}} Parties must have followed.

July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''28 December 1879''': The Tay Bridge Disaster: The Tay Bridge collapsed with a train on it. The weather was very bad, with gale-force winds and rain.

The ''Times'' reported that the average high temperature for the week ending December 31, 1879, was 53° F. and the low was 20° F.

In his column &quot;What the World Says&quot; in the 21 January 1880 World, Edmund Yates writes the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;How am I to describe better the magnificence of the Earl and Countess of Rosslyn’s ball at Euston Lodge last month, than by calling attention to the fact that M. Carlo, the eminent Knightsbridge coiffeur, arrived early in the day to crimp and powder the lacqueys? My informant adds, however, that the curled darlings were rather the worse for the festivities towards night. Was it not enough to turn their heads in every sense of the word?&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Edmund Yates, &quot;What the World Says,&quot; ''The World: A Journal for Men and Women''.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|21 Jan. 1880, p. 8, col. b.}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''31 December 1879''': Edmund Yates, editor of The World: A Journal for Men and Women, in his column &quot;What the World Says,&quot; describes a private viewing at the Grosvenor Gallery:&lt;blockquote&gt;The private view at the Grosvenor on the last day of the year gave people something to do on a desperately wet afternoon. The artistic dresses were perhaps in greater force than ever; indeed the faces and the hair and the attitudes pursued me to my bed, and gave me many a nightmare. I suppose the plain woman of all time has had the ambition to be looked at: centuries of failure have at last been crowned with a real success. Besides the Cimabue Browns there was an interesting menagerie of real lions, artistic, literary, and clerical. The artists were numerous, and their host and hostess seemed to enjoy themselves very thoroughly.

Frequenters of the picture private views have a new sensation this winter. Last season they mobbed beauty: now hideously-attired unkempt dowdiness provokes the stare. The prize for the new style seems generally awarded to a rhubarb coloured flannel Ulster and a cart-wheel beaver hat, which pervaded both the private views last week. [2 private views last week, one at the Grosvenor]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7 Jan. 1880, p. 9}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The official premiere of ''The Pirates of Penzance'' occurred in New York City on 31 December 1879 at the Fifth Avenue Theatre, to establish international copyright. Gilbert and Sullivan were there with the cast. The performance was a social event: attending were Mrs. Vanderbilt and Mrs. Astor.

==Works Cited==
{{reflist}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Maritime Health Research and Education-NET</title>
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      <text bytes="5475" sha1="1euv6a5uq18ahgk7gg3iecdf2qqc07n" xml:space="preserve">== '''The John Snow Prediabetes Institute.''' ==
[[File:ChatGPT Image 30 may 2026, 11 58 20 a.m.png|thumb|Prediabetes-remission research program]]

[[File:ChatGPT Image 24 abr 2026, 08 16 04 a.m.png|thumb|]]
Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools.(12+ y).The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer, and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Early diagnosis of prediabetes can provide both health and financial benefits.From a financial perspective, preventing or delaying diabetes can significantly lower healthcare costs. Early diagnosis of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes while helping individuals and healthcare systems avoid the substantial costs associated with diabetes and its complications.[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.]]
[[File:John Snow.jpg|thumb|left| John Snow in the early nineteenth century]]
[[File:Cholera in London 1866.gif|thumb|250px|Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866]] [[File:Choleramaplondon1866.png|thumb|right|250px|Legend for the map above]]

1. '&lt;nowiki/&gt;'''Prevalence studies''''

1.1 The-International-Maritime-Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/z3cq5ciiev06y8v9duw7u/A-International-Maritime-Health-Database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=pt0kdesvmagcxaa2wez3tmza3 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.2 The Maritime Officer`s Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/t/8LjP7cmulhr2x8Ty &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5. School childrens Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;


2. '''Intervention studies''' Englsh 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt; 

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Strategies for research and implementation''' 
For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (Body Mass Index) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids` schools..
A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained:

'''5. Minutes from meetings''' &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/t/3ZfLGngkS3pSlAQ3 &lt;/ref&gt;

6. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Antonio Roberto Abaya MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark,&lt;/small&gt;
==References==
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
&lt;references /&gt;Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Web Translation Projects/12 Deforming Tendencies</title>
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      <text bytes="25805" sha1="ru222gm70sbrwr3bbktwhxke6dyrmib" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trail of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the concjunction „and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipsis, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that „the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way, in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called „poetization”, and in prose – „rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or „iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the  expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – „Tortoise” and „taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated „Tortoise” as „szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified „twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as „lico”, „fizjognomia” i „facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as „twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – „tunnel” and „passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – „korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, „tunel” or „przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words in needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It renders the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronouns the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with „wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression „Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

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      <text bytes="25805" sha1="2dgvjo6boettcilwdvfvyag7hateg1p" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trial of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the concjunction „and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipsis, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that „the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way, in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called „poetization”, and in prose – „rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or „iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the  expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – „Tortoise” and „taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated „Tortoise” as „szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified „twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as „lico”, „fizjognomia” i „facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as „twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – „tunnel” and „passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – „korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, „tunel” or „przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words in needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It renders the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronouns the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with „wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression „Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

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      <text bytes="25804" sha1="lovdo1x26qx6mpgcymzbye7wjby4lwq" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trial of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the conjunction “and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipses, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that „the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way, in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called „poetization”, and in prose – „rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or „iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the  expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – „Tortoise” and „taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated „Tortoise” as „szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified „twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as „lico”, „fizjognomia” i „facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as „twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – „tunnel” and „passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – „korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, „tunel” or „przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words in needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It renders the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronouns the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with „wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression „Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

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      <text bytes="25803" sha1="iyqsonv0bdejazfsv90w82qwzu6sxx7" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trial of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the conjunction “and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipses, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that “the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called “poetization”, and in prose – “rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or „iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the  expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – „Tortoise” and „taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated „Tortoise” as „szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified „twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as „lico”, „fizjognomia” i „facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as „twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – „tunnel” and „passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – „korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, „tunel” or „przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words in needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It renders the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronouns the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with „wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression „Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

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      <text bytes="25802" sha1="755e94udd1eh8t5gzn9u0qf3q1jyt10" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trial of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the conjunction “and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipses, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that “the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called “poetization”, and in prose – “rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or “iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – “Tortoise” and “taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated “Tortoise” as “szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified “twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as “lico”, “fizjognomia” i “facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as “twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – “tunnel” and “passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – “korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, “tunel” or “przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words in needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It renders the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronouns the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with „wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression „Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

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      <text bytes="25801" sha1="o9706w3rbik6fajm4smqox3g2t3zqzo" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trial of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the conjunction “and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipses, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that “the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called “poetization”, and in prose – “rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or “iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – “Tortoise” and “taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated “Tortoise” as “szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified “twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as “lico”, “fizjognomia” i “facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as “twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – “tunnel” and “passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – “korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, “tunel” or “przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words is needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause, combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It makes the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronouns the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with „wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression „Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

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      <text bytes="25803" sha1="fs2tnzff0u8gcxrv0fnkwztox5hmul8" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trial of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the conjunction “and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipses, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that “the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called “poetization”, and in prose – “rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or “iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – “Tortoise” and “taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated “Tortoise” as “szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified “twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as “lico”, “fizjognomia” i “facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as “twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – “tunnel” and “passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – “korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, “tunel” or “przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words is needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause, combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It makes the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronounces the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with „wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression „Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

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      <text bytes="25806" sha1="1bjtbuz7pmtq44alw4brq9upj9bg8g8" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This project is a part of the &quot;Translations on the Web&quot; course at the Jagiellonian University. It may be of interest to people engrossed in translation studies, and those who want to get acquainted with 12 deforming tendencies introduced by Antoine Berman. The project comprises a definition of the term and analysis of the deforming tendencies with examples from “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll and its Polish translation by Maria Morawska. All the descriptions of the deforming tendencies are based on Antoine Berman's essay &quot;Translation and the Trials of the Foreign&quot;. Similarly, all the excerpts from the tables come from Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; and &quot;Alicja w Krainie Czarów&quot; translated by Maria Morawska.

== Maria Morawska's translation of &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; ==
[[File:Alice's adventures in Wonderland - (IA alicesadventures00carr 25).pdf|thumb|A cover of Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; (1865)]]Maria Morawska translated &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; in 1927 on commission of Gebethner and Wolff. In the first edition of the novel, there was a note that it was a free translation from English. Indeed, if one compares the original with its translation by Morawska, it renders that it really is a loose translation.&lt;ref&gt;„Alicja w Krainie Czarów.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 June 2021, www.pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicja_w_Krainie_Czarów. Accessed 11 June 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; It means that the text is very different from the original, and because of that it is deprived of the foreignness, at least to some extent. Obviously, using the deformations in a translation is natural and inevitable, and it does not mean that the text in which they appear is bad. It simply means that it lacks the foreignness, which, for Berman, was a very important merit of translation.

All of the deforming tendencies are included in the abovementioned Maria Morawska's translation, thus this is the one which all the examples in this project come from. In her translation many changes may be observed – from the order of sentences to the effacement of sociolects, and that was the reason for me choosing this particular translation out of the twelve, which have been provided so far.

== Dual audience ==
Lewis Carroll's &quot;Alice's Adventures in Wonderland&quot; is a book both for children and adults. Generally regarded as an example of children's literature, it has a hidden meaning, which makes it interesting for adults, too. It is a tale about curious adventures of a little girl, the world of magic and wonders, with animal characters and funny nursery rhymes. On the other hand, the book is a thorough analysis of the human mind in a deep sleep – slowing the action, repetitions, changing the pace, and the strands of visions render it a story suitable for older readers, who are aware that dreams have their own laws.&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maciej Słomczyński, Wydawnictwo Zielona Sowa, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; By using Berman's deforming tendencies, therefore depriving the translation of some foreign aspects, Maria Morawska made the book more comprehensible for children. This idea is more developed at the end of this project.

== Brief description ==

Twelve deforming tendencies is a term established by Antoine Berman (1942-1991) – a French translator, historian, and the author of Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. In the essay he analyses the system of textual deformation presenting the twelve tendencies that render a translation deviate from its essential aim. These he formulated on the basis of his own experience  as a translator. They are as follows:

* rationalisation
* clarification
* expansion
* ennoblement
* qualitative impoverishment
* quantitative impoverishment
* the destruction of rhythms
* the destruction of underlying networks of signification
* the destruction of linguistic patternings
* the destruction of vernacular network or their exoticisation
* the destruction of expressions and idioms
* the effacement of the superimposition of languages  

== Translation and the Trials of the Foreign ==
Before enlisting the twelve deforming tendencies and providing detailed descriptions to them, Antoine Berman writes a short introduction. There, he describes the translation as “the trial of the foreign” – it is supposed to change what is foreign to something that is familiar, or known. The aim of translation is to uncover the core of the foreign text. According to Holderlin – a German poet – translating means emphasising the work’s strangeness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Berman, Antoine. „Translation and the Trials of the Foreign.” ''The Translation Studies Reader'', edited by Lawrence Venuti, Routledge, 2012, 284-297.&lt;/ref&gt; A merit of reading a translation is experiencing the foreignness of the original text, and the deforming tendencies deprive it of its foreignness rendering the text more natural. However, according to what Berman says, the target audience should receive foreign as foreign. Because of the numerous textual deformations, a translated text cannot be the titular trial of the foreign.

Berman emphasises that his analysis is primitive and based on his experience as a translator. In order to make it more systematic, other scholars, translators, etc. speaking different languages should contribute. What is more, he wants someone to continue his work by creating a positive counterpart to his essay, that would neutralize the negativity of it. He mentions that a translator cannot avoid these tendencies by the mere awareness of their existence. In order to avoid them, one needs to succumb.

== The twelve deforming tendencies ==

=== Rationalization ===
The very first of the deforming tendencies mentioned by Berman in his essay is rationalization. As he says at the end of its description while summing up the information about the term: “rationalization deforms the original by reversing its basic tendency”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; – it makes the naturally concrete prose abstract by changing the sentence structure, substituting verbs with nouns, and selecting the more general substantive out of two. Rationalization is mainly about syntactical structure of a text – the order of words within a sentence, the order of sentences within a paragraph; and punctuation, etc. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland''. Project Gutenberg, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Lewis. ''Alicja w Krainie Czarów''. Translated by Maria Morawska, Wydawnictwo IBIS, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

In the above example from the fourth chapter, the author frequently uses the conjunction “and”, colons and a semicolon. In the Polish version, instead of those, the translator uses quite a lot of ellipses, and not a single semicolon and colon. This means she chose completely different punctuation marks. The original passage has the continuity, and the translation gives a lot of shorter sentences, giving the reader time to stop, and thus slowing the action. Thanks to that, it is easy for children to follow the story.

=== Clarification ===
It is another phenomenon mentioned by Berman in his essay. Translation itself is clarifying the written word in a foreign language. Sometimes when a fragment of the text is vague, because the author wanted it to be so, it should remain unclear in the translation. However, clarification is an inherent part of translation because, as the American poet Galway Kinnell said: “The translation should be a little clearer than the original.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; According to Berman, every translation includes clarification. On the one hand, thanks to this tendency, the reader is provided with all information, there is nothing unclear about the text, and new light is shed on it. On the other hand, it is incosistent with Berman’s beliefs – what was meant to be implicit, should remain implicit. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried hedges (…)
|– Zabezpieczałem się korzeniami drzew, próbowałem sypać wały, sadzić żywopłoty (…)
|}

In the original, the character does not say what it tried to do with those trees, banks, and hedges. Perhaps it tried to hide its eggs there, or build a new nest (the character is a pigeon). It is not entirely clear, so the room is left for interpretation. By adding different verbs to the nouns, the translator created a completely understandable sentence. The reader is aware what the character did with the roots of trees (it covered itself with them), banks (it built them), and hedges (it planted them). Clarification is interfering with the original, and it limits the abstraction and the number of ways of interpretation. Nevertheless, it creates a clear and vivid image of what the author probably had in his mind.

=== Expansion ===
Expansion means creating a translation which is longer than the original. This takes place very often while translating from English into Polish. This tendency is influenced by the two previously mentioned tendencies – rationalization and clarification. It may emasculate the rhythmic flow of the text. Expansion usually makes a work longer, while impoverishing its meaning. Berman said about this tendency that “the addition adds nothing”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Perhaps not, (…) but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.
|Gawędzić z nim – nie gawędziłam nigdy; powiedz, dlaczego mam mu dawać tytuł szanownego. Mam go co dzień więcej, niż chcę, do zbytku go posiadam, nudzi mnie nieraz, nie wiem, co z nim robić. 
|}
Since the translator added the verbs to the nouns in the above passage, the text automatically becomes longer. A Polish translation is usually longer than the source text in English, and if one takes into account the way in which the translator plays with syntax, and how much she changes the texts when it comes to the order of words and sentences, one must acknowledge that the translation has to be longer than the original.

=== Ennoblement ===
Another tendency, ennobmelent, means creating a more elegant text out of the original one, which is treated by the translator as a rough draft. He/she simply rewrites the original, rendering it more sophisticated, with the use of distinguished words and elegant phrases. So one can say that ennoblement is simply a rewriting that is based on the original text. This way, the original can be rendered better by removing possible awkwardness and clumsy bits. In poetry the tendency is called “poetization”, and in prose – “rhetorization.”
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) and had to stoop to save her neck from being broken.
|(…) aby wszystkie członki ocalić od uszkodzenia.
|}
In this passage, the author used the ordinary word “neck”, which is a very basic word known even by beginners, who have just started learning English. However, in the Polish translation, the word “członki” is used. This word is much more elegant, especially that it is used not in its primary meaning “members”, but “limbs”.  

=== Qualitative impoverishment ===
Qualitative impoverishment means replacing words, phrases, descriptions, etc. in the original with ones that are not sonorous, or “iconic”. An iconic phrase is a phrase that creates an image in the reader’s head. If this method is adopted in the whole book, the expression of the book is completely destroyed. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked.

“We called him Tortoise because he taught us.”
|– Naszym nauczycielem był stary żółw, nazywaliśmy go szylkretem.

– Dlaczego nazywaliście go szylkretem, jeżeli nim nie był? – spytała Alicja.

– Nazywaliśmy go szylkretem, ponieważ nas uczył, to profesorski tytuł.
|}
In its story, one of the characters speaking used a word play, and both words it uttered – “Tortoise” and “taught us” are pronounced in the same way. This sonorous fragment was avoided in the translation. The translator translated “Tortoise” as “szylkret” – indeed, it would be hard to create a translation with homophones that would be applicable in this conversation. Nevertheless, because of that difficulty, the translation’s quality was impoverished.  

=== Quantitative impoverishment ===
This tendency is connected with lexical loss. We can talk about quantitative impoverishment when in the original there is more than one signifier (a physical sign, for example a word or a sound, that has meaning)&lt;ref&gt;https://dictionary.cambridge.org&lt;/ref&gt;, and it is translated as only one word. For instance, if a Polish author, for the signified “twarz” alternately used in his work such signifiers as “lico”, “fizjognomia” i “facjata”, and the translator every time would translate it only as “twarz”, it would mean he/she adopted quantitative impoverishment.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well. (…) Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it.
|Nie namyślając się, wpadła weń. Było to wejście do wąskiego, długiego korytarza. W dali biegł Biały Królik. Chce go dogonić, pędzi więc co tchu. Nagle korytarz się skończył i przed dziewczynką rozwarła się ciemna przepaść. (…) Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu, i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik.
|}
In the above extract from the English book, the author uses two words for describing a long and narrow way – “tunnel” and “passage.” However, in the translation, only one word – “korytarz” – is used (only one signifier for a signified). If the translator used more signifiers, for instance, “tunel” or “przejście”, quantitative impoverishment would not take place here. 

=== The destruction of rhythms ===
This tendency can be more often observed in poetry than in prose, but it does sometimes occur in the latter. According to Berman, it is difficult to destroy the rhythm in prose, because it is constantly in movement. Nevertheless, it is possible, mainly by reorganizing the punctuation. This is a case when a translator uses many more punctuation marks than the author did in the original.   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation 
|-
|(…) down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over. Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner (…) 
|Widzi pod sobą kupę chrustu i zeschłych liści. Spogląda w górę… Ciemno… Patrzy przed siebie… Znów wąski korytarz, a w dali biegnie Biały Królik. Zrozumiała, że nie ma chwili do stracenia. Zerwała się. Pędzi co sił… słyszy jeszcze, jak biały królik szepce (…)
|}
The original passage is written in a smooth manner and the action is very rapid. In the translation, ellipsis is used thrice, thus slowing the action. Just like in the example of rationalization – in this way, it is possible for children to follow the plot more easily because this quick action is fragmented. 

=== The destruction of the underlying networks of signification ===
According to what Berman says in his essay, every literary work has a hidden meaning, or another dimension. Particular words from different chapters may form a network – a chain of reoccurring phrases, words, and their synonyms, which create another dimension of the story. He also says that in order to place the desirable image in the readers’ minds, a proper choice of words is needed. These should be selected carefully by the translator so that readers of the translated version would have a similar perception of the book or its fragment as the source audience. This entails the destruction of underlying networks of signification.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
They key word here is “digging”. It helps in creating the strange atmosphere. The very action of digging for apples is abnormal, just like other things and actions in the whole book. When one reads this passage, one may think: “How can you dig for apples? They do not grow underground.” By using this word, Carroll added one more strange aspect to the story – in the Wonderland you do not pick apples, you dig for them. The translator rationalized this utterance by changing the verb “digging” into “zbieram”. The verb “zbieram” is perfectly neutral as this is what one would normally say. Here, the strangeness of the text in absent. Something that was irrational in the original was replaced with something ordinary in the target text. The two versions affect readers in a different way. Actually, the translation does not affect the reader in any way, while the original version does – it adds even more strangeness to the world depicted in the book. 

=== The destruction of linguistic patternings ===
This tendency refers to the construction of sentences in a given text. Such tendencies as expansion, clarification or rationalization may destroy the systematic nature of a text by introducing elements that are excluded by its essential system. As a result, the translation is more “homogenous” than the original work, and it is also more incoherent to the reader. The tendency may be adapted as changing an interrogative form into a positive form, switching the main clause, combining separate sentences with a conjunction, etc.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, “and what is the use of a book,” thought Alice “without pictures or conversations?”
|Na ławce obok siostry, z lekka oparta o jej ramię, siedzi Alicja. Myśli, czym by się zająć, lecz oczki jej się kleją, morzy ją sen. Po chwili zagląda do książki, czytanej przez siostrę. Nic w niej jednak nie znajduje zabawnego – ani jednego obrazka, ani jednej wesołej rozmowy. Zniechęcona przymyka oczy i mruczy do siebie: 

- Na co komu mogą przydać się takie nudne książki. 
|}
In this example, the last sentence that ends with a question mark is translated into one that ends with a dot, so this is a change from an interrogative sentence into a constative. In the original, it seems like Alice is really curious about it and demands an answer for her question. It makes the reader think that, somehow, she is going to look for it. However, in the translation it looks like a question, for which she does not seek for an answer. As soon as she utters these words, she loses interest in it, and the action continues.

=== The destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization ===
Another deforming tendency enlisted by Antoine Berman and used by Maria Morawska in her translation is the destruction of vernacular networks or their exoticization. It means erasing diminutives, replacing verbs with nouns, etc. One of the ways of keeping the vernaculars is to exoticize them. There are two ways of exoticization: putting a word or phrase in italics or making additions to add more authenticity. However, since the vernacular is so deeply rooted in culture, it is hard to translate it, and relatively easy to create a ridiculous text.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|(…) “Sure then I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!”

”Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum”.)
|– Tu jestem, jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.

– Rzuć to wszystko, chodź tu zaraz, pomóż mi się stąd wygramolić… Uf… tak… dobrze… a teraz powiedz mi, co to tam tkwi w oknie. – Ramię, proszę jaśnie pana.
|}
While reading the original version, it is apparent that Pat belongs to a lower social class. Instead of “your”, he says “yer”, and he pronounces the word “arm” as “arrum”, which all proclaims that he is much inferior to his interlocutor when it comes to the social position. This is what the translated version lacks. Indeed, the reader knows that Pat is an underling as he calls the Rabbit “jaśnie pan”, but the cant was completely omitted. Morawska neutralised Pat’s personality by depriving him of what was his quality – his vernacular. This way, the social distinction is not as clearly visible as in the original.  

=== The destruction of expressions and idioms ===
This tendency comprises translating images, expressions, figures and proverbs into another language. Berman says that even if the meaning of the translated word is identical, replacing an idiom by its “equivalent” is an enthnocentrism. In such a case, the results may be absurd, and the translator may create a text whose action would take place in two realities – one of the original, and the other of the recipient language. Moreover, the reader is able to detect an equivalent of a foreign proverb, thus they should not be domesticated.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|“What I was going to say,” said the Dodo in an offended tone, “was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a Caucus-race.” 
|Obrażony Gąsior tłumaczył poirytowanym głosem:

– Mówię wyraźnie. Za najlepszy środek na osuszenie uważam wyścigi o pierwszeństwo.
|}
A Caucus-race is a competitive process in which a political party selects their candidate, especially presidential; a primary election via caucus.&lt;ref&gt;[[wiktionary:caucus_race|„Caucus Race.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 16 January 2021, www. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caucus_race. Accessed 11 June 2021.]]&lt;/ref&gt; In the translation it was replaced with “wyścigi o pierwszeństwo”. The expression “Caucus-race” is embedded in the American and British culture, while it is not known in Polish. The translator decided to render it neutral so that the Polish children would not have to wonder what it is, and their reading would be more smooth.

=== The effacement of the superimposition of languages ===
The last tendency refers to the omission of a koine, dialect, and other forms of a language. While using this tendency, the translator removes the relation between the surface language and the underlying language. Berman says that every novel comprises linguistic superimpositions, even if they include idiolects, sociolects, etc. This again can be observed in the following example.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!The original
!The Polish translation
|-
|I’m here! Digging for apples, yer honour!
|– Tu jestem, proszę jaśnie pana – odezwał się jakiś obcy głos – zbieram jabłka.
|}
Here, Pat’s sociolect is visible in the pronunciation of the word “yer” (instead of “your”) was omitted by Morawska in her translation. This way, the difference between the ordinary speech of, for example, the Rabbit, and Pat's sociolect is effaced, and the reader cannot see the difference between them.

== Conclusions ==
By using the deforming tendencies, for instance, simplifying the punctuation, and rendering clear what was originally vague, Morawska proved that her aim was to create a translation chiefly for children. Thanks to her approach to translating this work, the book was made easier to comprehend for young readers. Thereby, Morawska did not take into consideration the essence of Antoine Berman’s essay – to allow the foreign to remain the foreign. On the one hand, this renders the book easier to read for the young audience. On the other hand, the work could remain as mysterious as in the original, with all of its understatements and vague portions.  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

{{CourseCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
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      <text bytes="9878" sha1="2i00dcbv3t53huh1jpl0iyj068wmv56" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260707.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming language]]

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[[File:Sorbus torminalis Trunk and canopy.jpg|thumb|310px|The intracanopy of a Wild Service Tree, i.e. &lt;small&gt;''Torminalis glaberrima'' (Gand.) Sennikov &amp; Kurtto, ''Memoranda Soc. Fauna Fl. Fenn.'' 93: 32 (2017).&lt;/small&gt;]]&lt;br /&gt;
 
Most of my wiki contributions are made to [[:species:Main Page|Wikispecies]] where I'm an administrator, bureaucrat and interface admin,&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[https://species.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ListUsers&amp;limit=1&amp;username=Tommy_Kronkvist (verify)]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt; to the Swedish Wikimedia Chapter [[WMSE:|Wikimedia Sverige]] (WMSE) where I'm an administrator,&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[https://se.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Användare&amp;limit=1&amp;username=Tommy_Kronkvist verify]&lt;/span&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and as administrator and interface administrator at the Swedish version of [[wikivoyage:sv:Huvudsida|Wikivoyage]].&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[https://sv.wikivoyage.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ListUsers&amp;limit=1&amp;username=Tommy_Kronkvist verify]&lt;/span&gt;)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

So far (July 7, 2026), I've made just over 395,900 edits to 153 of the Wikimedia sister projects&amp;nbsp;– the majority of them to Wikispecies and Wikidata. My global account information for all of Wikimedia can be found [[meta:Special:CentralAuth/Tommy Kronkvist|here]].

Swedish is my mother tongue&amp;nbsp;– even though I was born in Finland&amp;nbsp;– but I feel comfortable speaking and writing English and to some extent in German as well. Odd as it may seem, unfortunately I can't speak any Finnish even though I went to school there for a few years prior to moving to Sweden (see [[w:Swedish-speaking population of Finland|Swedish-speaking population of Finland]] in Wikipedia). I've lived all over Sweden but nowadays reside in Uppsala, the fourth biggest city and former capital of Sweden.

I'm only the fourth generation named &quot;Kronkvist&quot;. My family name consists of two parts: ''kron'' – a short form of the Swedish word ''krona'' meaning 'crown', as in coronation crown or tree crown – and ''kvist'', meaning 'bough' or 'twig'. Hence the name ''Kronkvist'' refers to a twig in the canopy of a forest. I'm the fourth generation of Kronkvist's. Prior to that our family name was ''Mattus'': an oeconym meaning &quot;Matthew's Farm&quot;, dating back to at least 1637.
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    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka</title>
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      <text bytes="93374" sha1="r29k9zjgfaw519dze5oy5jb2b5clwig" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
| last1 = Azeez
| orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614
| first1 = Aaqib
| last2 = 
| first2 = 
| last3 = 
| first3 = 
| last4 = 
| first4 = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Old Dominion University
| correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com
| affiliations = institutes / affiliations
| correspondence = email@address.com
| keywords = &lt;!-- up to 6 keywords --&gt;
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = This is a narrative review.
}}

[abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] 

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka. Sources used included peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan journals, and official Sri Lankan governmental websites displaying relevant statistics/reports. Studies included were published prior to 2026. Keywords used to conduct searches include, but not limited to, were: &quot;Sri Lanka mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka civil war trauma&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka suicide&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka mental health ordinances&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka religion and mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka public mental healthcare&quot;, and &quot;Sri Lanka poverty/economic crisis mental health impact.&quot; Studies that were included were relevant to the topic (Sri Lanka, South Asian mental health law, suicide, public mental health, conflict/disaster trauma, or cultural/religious practice), had full text available, and were in the English language. Non-peer-reviewed sources were primarily used to explain historical claims or contextualize non-clinical claims. ''[include date of final search when needed]'' 

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had &quot;the spirit of the Gods within him&quot; and &quot;whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were &quot;placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world&quot;, with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a &quot;large scale segregation of mentally ill from society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. 

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.   

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The LTTE waged decades of massacres, assassinations of political figures, and suicide bombings to achieve ''[[w:Tamil_Eelam|Tamil Eelam]],'' leading to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]]
Accusation of war crimes have been leveraged towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]]&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report alleged that the Sri Lankan government considered the native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Vanni population also faced recruitment campaigns by the LTTE, where recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, were utilized for war efforts.  

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions].&quot; Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic sentiment was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values are encouraged to be emphasized across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against groups criticized for promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been officially approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka]]</text>
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[abstract will be put in after the paper has been completed] 

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain concerning despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka. Sources used included peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan journals, and official Sri Lankan governmental websites displaying relevant statistics/reports. Studies included were published prior to 2026. Keywords used to conduct searches include, but not limited to, were: &quot;Sri Lanka mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka civil war trauma&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka suicide&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka mental health ordinances&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka religion and mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka public mental healthcare&quot;, and &quot;Sri Lanka poverty/economic crisis mental health impact.&quot; Studies that were included were relevant to the topic (Sri Lanka, South Asian mental health law, suicide, public mental health, conflict/disaster trauma, or cultural/religious practice), had full text available, and were in the English language. Non-peer-reviewed sources were primarily used to explain historical claims or contextualize non-clinical claims. ''[include date of final search when needed]'' 

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had &quot;the spirit of the Gods within him&quot; and &quot;whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were &quot;placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world&quot;, with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a &quot;large scale segregation of mentally ill from society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. 

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of significant renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.   

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The LTTE waged decades of massacres, assassinations of political figures, and suicide bombings to achieve ''[[w:Tamil_Eelam|Tamil Eelam]],'' leading to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians evacuating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns initiated by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009).]]
Accusation of war crimes have been leveraged towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]]&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report alleged that the Sri Lankan government considered the native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Vanni population also faced recruitment campaigns by the LTTE, where recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, were utilized for war efforts.  

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were poorl&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions].&quot; Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Anti-Muslim sentiment was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced significant inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values are encouraged to be emphasized across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against groups criticized for promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been officially approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka]]</text>
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| last1 = Azeez
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| abstract = This is a narrative review.
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''Mental health in Sri Lanka continues to be underrepresented and neglected on the island. Therefore, it's essential for a comprehensive, but brief overview to be compiled. This narrative review goes over the historical developments of mental health to the present-day, impacts of notable incidents within the last 100 years, current challenges impeding general mental health, the role of the major religions in mental health and mental healthcare, and recommendations for future mental healthcare improvement. The author employs a narrative review and includes peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports to cite clinical and historical statements, though non-peer-reviewed sources were utilized to contextualize historical and non-clinical claims. The narrative review concludes that outdated legislation, impacts from recent conflicts/disasters, stigma surrounding mental health, and economic vulnerability contribute to the mental health crisis in the country. The author stresses updating legal frameworks, expansion of services to more neglected populations (domestic violence, children with disabilities), and raising awareness to subsidize social stigma.''

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain concerning despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka. Sources used included peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan journals, and official Sri Lankan governmental websites displaying relevant statistics/reports. Studies included were published prior to 2026. Keywords used to conduct searches include, but not limited to, were: &quot;Sri Lanka mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka civil war trauma&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka suicide&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka mental health ordinances&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka religion and mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka public mental healthcare&quot;, and &quot;Sri Lanka poverty/economic crisis mental health impact.&quot; Studies that were included were relevant to the topic (Sri Lanka, South Asian mental health law, suicide, public mental health, conflict/disaster trauma, or cultural/religious practice), had full text available, and were in the English language. Non-peer-reviewed sources were primarily used to explain historical claims or contextualize non-clinical claims. ''[include date of final search when needed]'' 

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had &quot;the spirit of the Gods within him&quot; and &quot;whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were &quot;placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world&quot;, with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a &quot;large scale segregation of mentally ill from society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. 

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of significant renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.   

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The LTTE waged decades of massacres, assassinations of political figures, and suicide bombings to achieve ''[[w:Tamil_Eelam|Tamil Eelam]],'' leading to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians evacuating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns initiated by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009).]]
Accusation of war crimes have been leveraged towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]]&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report alleged that the Sri Lankan government considered the native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Vanni population also faced recruitment campaigns by the LTTE, where recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, were utilized for war efforts.  

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were poorl&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions].&quot; Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Anti-Muslim sentiment was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced significant inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values are encouraged to be emphasized across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against groups criticized for promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been officially approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka]]</text>
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Welcome to the portal &quot;Plurilingual education&quot;. It is a collection of free resources dedicated to plurilingual education to be used for pre-service and in-service training of language teachers. It has been created by the European project PEP, which is co-funded by the European Commission within the Erasmus+ programme (Promoting plurilingual education, 2023-1-FR01-KA220-HED-000160820). 
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* [[Decolonial perspective in plurilingual education]]
* [[Plurilingual education and digital technologies|Digital technologies in plurilingual education]]
* [[Deaf and hard of hearing people and mulitlingual education]]
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* Cortés Velásquez, D., Strasser, M. et al. (2025b). ''Project Promoting Plurilingual Education (PEP) -KA220-HED- E96C9232 Survey Report. Language use in secondary and higher education : Teachers’ beliefs and practices''. PEP – Promoting Plurilingual Education. [https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.16755 https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.16755]
* Cortés Velásquez, D., Strasser, M. et al. (2025c). ''Sprachgebrauch in der Sekundar- und Hochschulbildung : Überzeugungen und Praktiken von Lehrkräften''. PEP – Promoting Plurilingual Education. [https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.16758 https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.16758 ]
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* '''[https://sites.google.com/view/pep-conference Conference - Bridging Voices in Plurilingual Education: Policies, Research and Practices]''', 23-24 october 2025, Rom. The conference was organised by Università degli Studi Roma Tre within the framework of the PEP project (Promoting plurilingual education, 2023-1-FR01-KA220-HED-000160820).
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Projects and materials to &quot;teach&quot; plurilingual education
*[https://sites.google.com/view/pepproject/productions/livret-de-bonnes-pratiques-good-practices-booklet Booklet of adaptable plurilingual practices]
*[https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2020-2023/Mediation-in-teaching-and-assessment METLA - Mediation in teaching, learning and assessment]
*[https://www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/plurilingualism CEFR and Plurilingualism]
*[https://carap.ecml.at/ CARAP/FREPA]
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* [[Portal:Translation|Translation]]
'''In the French Wikiversité''' 
*[https://fr.wikiversity.org/wiki/D%C3%A9partement:Didactique_des_langues Department of plurilingual education in the French Wikiversité]
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[[Category:Wikilang|*]]

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      <text bytes="107640" sha1="kynu213h74mf2h0traw4g0394n7qb0r" xml:space="preserve">== Utiliser Wikidata pour mettre en œuvre une méthode de revue de littérature vivante, Conférence pour les méthodes pour les sciences sociales et les humanités, 9 et 10 Juillet 2026 (Aubervilliers, France) ==

== Acknowledgements ==
The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. 

=== Contributors ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing
|-
|Amélie E. Pereira
|Laboratoire DICEN IDF
|https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5928-5586
|Meta-data enrichement, article writing
|-
|Finn Nielsen
|Technical University of Denmark
|https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356
|Data visualisation
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

=== The problem of academic information overload ===
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

=== The problem of knowledge synthesis ===
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

=== The problem of scientific results dissemination ===
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

== Toward a living review on just sustainability transition ==

=== Just sustainability transition ===
Just sustainability transition transition is &quot;a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; and fragmented results coming from various disciplines&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Then, making literature reviews &quot;living&quot; would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories.  

=== Living reviews ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Human validation stays notably necessary&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process.

=== Wikimedia projects ===
Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&amp;oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a &quot;collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&amp;oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. &quot;A  [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&amp;oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Like Wikipedia pages, Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. 

Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?'''

In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : 

● '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.

● '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…).

● '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs.

● '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data).

We also have 2 assumptions :

● '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool.

● '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers.
== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal was to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of a corpus of articles we selected into Wikidata. The second step was to model the content  of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. typologies, causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on a Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy.

== 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations). To do so we imported academic references into Wikidata, and explored the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus.

=== Database search ===
Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt; (e.g. the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;). Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation, their consultation, or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions).

We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article selection ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were : 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies/initiatives/cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors 
* Including justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files with the lists of included and excluded articles are available on the archive plateform Zenodo : https://zenodo.org/records/20749974

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
Before importing the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in Wikidata. Next, we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through metadata enrichement ===
Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt) (e.g. &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;). 

By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. 

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ====
The sample of article we selected included only litterature reviews, but we wanted to describ what kind of literature review it was. We first read abstracts to identify all the different types of litterature reviews present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, we added a statement saying that {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information &amp; Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After this step, the {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q2412849}} in Wikidata were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ====
When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by linking a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking this identifier to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers by categorizing scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

=== Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus ===
To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' The sections below discuss the advantages and limitations of wikidata regarding this hypothesis.

==== Advantages of Wikidata ====
Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows anyone to enter more metadata about each academic articles. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} of the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, &quot;energy transition&quot; was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Wikidata's collaborative nature is here adain an advantage. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). 

==== Limitations of Wikidata ====
The limitations of Wikidata is that it is not yet well integrated with the tools researchers use to do literature reviews (kowledge management softwares and bibliographic databases).    

Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to &quot;filter&quot; the part of the knowledge graph we were working on.   

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount of bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. In this context, the community has to rethink the purpose of Wikidata regarding bilbiographic data.   

==== Future possbilities ====
A solution to the limitations would be to developp the role of Wikidata as a link between other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. (Example :&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Finn Årup|last2=Lyhne|first2=Ivar|last3=Garigliotti|first3=Dario|last4=Butzbach|first4=Annika|last5=Ravn Boess|first5=Emilia|last6=Hose|first6=Katja|last7=Kørnøv|first7=Lone|date=2023|title=Environmental impact assessment reports in Wikidata and a Wikibase|url=https://repositum.tuwien.at/handle/20.500.12708/193492|language=en|publisher=CEUR-WS.org|volume=3443|pages=1–8|doi=10.34726/5421}}&lt;/ref&gt;)  Wikidata could then be an intermediary between locally curated corpus and more exhaustive bilbiographic catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and sharing enriched corpus in Wikidata could help to train more precise taging algorythms.

== 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. We present these methodologies before describing our current knowledge modelling experimentations.

=== Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks ===
This section presents social science methodology that presents similarities with knowledge modelling.

==== Concept maps ====
[[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;Cañas, Alberto J., et al. &quot;CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment.&quot; (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap]&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;, Altas.Ti &quot;network&quot; feature...). The &quot;box and arrow&quot; logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data.  
  
==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.   
[[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]]

==== Causal diagrams ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; After identifying themes, qualitative researchers are expected to theorize the &quot;arrows&quot; between themes&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;R.esearchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Knowledge modelling in Wikidata ===
This section presents our knowledge modelling experimentation in Wikidata.

==== Conceptual modelling ====
Our first step was to reflect on what is a &quot;concept&quot; and what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; and modelling concepts in Wikidata could help to build less ambiguous concepts. Concept definition encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing psychology and philsosophy approaches on the determination of the content of concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
*Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
*Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties).
*Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en).
*Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can use it before really knowing what its properties will be.
*Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ====
To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting with the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source in manually entered statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q3249551}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

[[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]]

We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). These issues were related to contradictions, precision, concision and ontology. We discuss each issue and draft recommandations to refine our modelling process.  

===== Contradictions =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in &quot;does not have effect&quot; seems contrary to what is listed in &quot;has goal&quot;.) We would however argue this is not a problem because &quot;statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Besides, in the case of goals versus effects statements, it is not contradictory because one can have a goal and fail to achieve it. In the case of energy democracy, the discrepancy between the stated goals of this movement and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;.  

Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. 

===== Precision =====
We noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. As a result, we received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). In addition to the ambiguity of sources, a reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items. While following this implicit rule allowed us to focus on the most notable concepts, creating new items could also help make the statements more precise. 

Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata.  [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between &quot;concept&quot; and &quot;political concept&quot;.]]
===== Concision =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were &quot;in the tree of another value&quot;. The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification :
*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized (we opened a discussion about this here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity&lt;nowiki/&gt;) The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize this kind of relationship (using &quot;instance of&quot; as transversal property and checking &quot;instance of or subclass of&quot;).

*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. Choosing the degree of precision is a problem similar to choosing whether or not to create a new item.
Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize redundancies. 

===== Quantification =====
Modelling quantitative statements was challenging. We mostly skipped those but made an attempt for one case : the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanegas-Cantarero|first=María M.|date=2020-12-01|title=Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901196|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=70|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for &quot;final energy consumption&quot;. There are such properties in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item  (e.g. the population of a town) on Wikipedia through dynamic infoboxes that are updated with Wikidata information. But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Therefore creating properties for every quantifiable characteristic may not be possible. An alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). 

[[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]]

Despite this possibility, since quantitative data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. 

Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward an external datasets and add quantitative statements if relevant.

===== Ontology =====
Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple types of entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. We reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements, but encountered struggles to model differences between ''process versus outcomes'', ''ideal versus reality'', ''phenomenon versus theory'' and ''discourses versus practices''. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. Another problem was to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was also difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory,'' for example, we did not manage to model the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented. Finally, we also would have needed more distinctions between ''discourses and practices.'' Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea.

Our first attempt to multiple &quot;natures&quot; of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory, and implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. To do so we have to decide how to split the different natures {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} and what will be the relationship between the resulting items. Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in Wikidata can quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Indeed, the relations between the different types of entities constituting the social worls are not simple nor consensual among philosophers of social science.  

For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q15080858}} posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)&lt;ref&gt;Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.&lt;/ref&gt;. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. 

In theory, such ontology can be implemented in Wikidata as it &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... A quick search seem to show that entities related to the social reality can quickly fall into heterogeneous and sometime contradictory root classes (see table below). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Item
!Existing root class entity
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q12705}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}
{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q132907471}}
|}

=== Future steps ===
Current {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} in Wikidata do not seem very informative to classify the aspects of our concept in a top-down manner. Our next steps will thus be to :  

* Export the existing model of the concept to keep track of each modelling steps (files and graphs screenshots)

*Explore if existing standards offer more relevant classes to categorize social entities (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology).
**CRMSoc : https://cidoc-crm.org/crmsoc/fm_releases
**Criteria for choosing an ontology = choose something that is used and maintained by a community (colleague feedback)
*Create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... based on a new reading of our sample of article and aligned with existing ontologies.
*Compare grounded theory/CAQDAS with knowledge modelling methods

== 3. Data visualisation ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below.

=== Filter statements ===

*Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH
*Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Properties visualisation ===

*Visualise the &quot;tree&quot; of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io)

=== Concepts visualisation ===

*Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. [[d:Wikidata:Scholia|Scholia]] request &quot;topic in context&quot;)
*Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons.

=== Mapping sources consensus ===

*Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible.

== 4. Writing ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). 

=== Advantages of Wikiversity ===
Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}&lt;/ref&gt;). The possibility to view the page history provide an exhaustive versionning of a paper, which constitute interesting data documenting the academic writing process (at first we did not comment the nature of our modifications but after thinking about this reuse possibility, we described it with more details). The contribution statistics based on the history also offers a new way to track author's contributions to a paper in a transparent way.

=== The issue of text interoperability ===
A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, but the management of references is lacking. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication (the only possibility is to export the page as a PDF and you may be reading this article in this format).   

There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? To what extent academic publisher will accept to publish &quot;remixed&quot; texts while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and this could be an interesting conversation to have in the open science community.  

== Discussion ==
Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping new methodological standards regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis even though such reasonning are likely present. The modelling process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing to avoid semantic confusion&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to &quot;navigate&quot; it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to &quot;navigate&quot; scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the compatibilities between writing publicly on a wiki page and engaging in classical publication processes.

A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build living literature reviews including knowledge graphs and wiki pages. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and include the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 

== Funding ==
This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&amp;_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603.

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
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| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
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| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
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| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>kynu213h74mf2h0traw4g0394n7qb0r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817900</id>
      <parentid>2817851</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-08T06:16:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata */</comment>
      <origin>2817900</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="108091" sha1="e7itxwbfnhney7c9fzysm8eiyrw3wbc" xml:space="preserve">== Utiliser Wikidata pour mettre en œuvre une méthode de revue de littérature vivante, Conférence pour les méthodes pour les sciences sociales et les humanités, 9 et 10 Juillet 2026 (Aubervilliers, France) ==

== Acknowledgements ==
The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. 

=== Contributors ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing
|-
|Amélie E. Pereira
|Laboratoire DICEN IDF
|https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5928-5586
|Meta-data enrichement, article writing
|-
|Finn Nielsen
|Technical University of Denmark
|https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356
|Data visualisation
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

=== The problem of academic information overload ===
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

=== The problem of knowledge synthesis ===
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

=== The problem of scientific results dissemination ===
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

== Toward a living review on just sustainability transition ==

=== Just sustainability transition ===
Just sustainability transition transition is &quot;a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; and fragmented results coming from various disciplines&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Then, making literature reviews &quot;living&quot; would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories.  

=== Living reviews ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Human validation stays notably necessary&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process.

=== Wikimedia projects ===
Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&amp;oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a &quot;collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&amp;oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. &quot;A  [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&amp;oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Like Wikipedia pages, Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. 

Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?'''

In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : 

● '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.

● '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…).

● '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs.

● '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data).

We also have 2 assumptions :

● '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool.

● '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers.
== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal was to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of a corpus of articles we selected into Wikidata. The second step was to model the content  of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. typologies, causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on a Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy.

== 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations). To do so we imported academic references into Wikidata, and explored the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus.

=== Database search ===
Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt; (e.g. the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;). Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation, their consultation, or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions).

We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article selection ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were : 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies/initiatives/cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors 
* Including justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files with the lists of included and excluded articles are available on the archive plateform Zenodo : https://zenodo.org/records/20749974

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
Before importing the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in Wikidata. Next, we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through metadata enrichement ===
Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt) (e.g. &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;). 

By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. 

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ====
The sample of article we selected included only litterature reviews, but we wanted to describ what kind of literature review it was. We first read abstracts to identify all the different types of litterature reviews present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, we added a statement saying that {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information &amp; Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After this step, the {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q2412849}} in Wikidata were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ====
When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by linking a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking this identifier to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers by categorizing scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6977}} ====
We explored the possibility to model review networks, that is linking review paper to reviewed papers (and not broadly cited papers). We selected one of the paper which had the most detailed list of reviewed papers ({{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}), then we added this list in Wikidata using Open refine. Then we snowballed this process for the reviewed papers which were also litterature reviews.

=== Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus ===
To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' The sections below discuss the advantages and limitations of wikidata regarding this hypothesis.

==== Advantages of Wikidata ====
Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows anyone to enter more metadata about each academic articles. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} of the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, &quot;energy transition&quot; was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Wikidata's collaborative nature is here adain an advantage. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). 

==== Limitations of Wikidata ====
The limitations of Wikidata is that it is not yet well integrated with the tools researchers use to do literature reviews (kowledge management softwares and bibliographic databases).    

Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to &quot;filter&quot; the part of the knowledge graph we were working on.   

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount of bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. In this context, the community has to rethink the purpose of Wikidata regarding bilbiographic data.   

==== Future possbilities ====
A solution to the limitations would be to developp the role of Wikidata as a link between other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. (Example :&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Finn Årup|last2=Lyhne|first2=Ivar|last3=Garigliotti|first3=Dario|last4=Butzbach|first4=Annika|last5=Ravn Boess|first5=Emilia|last6=Hose|first6=Katja|last7=Kørnøv|first7=Lone|date=2023|title=Environmental impact assessment reports in Wikidata and a Wikibase|url=https://repositum.tuwien.at/handle/20.500.12708/193492|language=en|publisher=CEUR-WS.org|volume=3443|pages=1–8|doi=10.34726/5421}}&lt;/ref&gt;)  Wikidata could then be an intermediary between locally curated corpus and more exhaustive bilbiographic catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and sharing enriched corpus in Wikidata could help to train more precise taging algorythms.

== 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. We present these methodologies before describing our current knowledge modelling experimentations.

=== Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks ===
This section presents social science methodology that presents similarities with knowledge modelling.

==== Concept maps ====
[[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;Cañas, Alberto J., et al. &quot;CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment.&quot; (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap]&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;, Altas.Ti &quot;network&quot; feature...). The &quot;box and arrow&quot; logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data.  
  
==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.   
[[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]]

==== Causal diagrams ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; After identifying themes, qualitative researchers are expected to theorize the &quot;arrows&quot; between themes&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;R.esearchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Knowledge modelling in Wikidata ===
This section presents our knowledge modelling experimentation in Wikidata.

==== Conceptual modelling ====
Our first step was to reflect on what is a &quot;concept&quot; and what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; and modelling concepts in Wikidata could help to build less ambiguous concepts. Concept definition encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing psychology and philsosophy approaches on the determination of the content of concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
*Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
*Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties).
*Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en).
*Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can use it before really knowing what its properties will be.
*Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ====
To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting with the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source in manually entered statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q3249551}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

[[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]]

We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). These issues were related to contradictions, precision, concision and ontology. We discuss each issue and draft recommandations to refine our modelling process.  

===== Contradictions =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in &quot;does not have effect&quot; seems contrary to what is listed in &quot;has goal&quot;.) We would however argue this is not a problem because &quot;statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Besides, in the case of goals versus effects statements, it is not contradictory because one can have a goal and fail to achieve it. In the case of energy democracy, the discrepancy between the stated goals of this movement and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;.  

Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. 

===== Precision =====
We noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. As a result, we received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). In addition to the ambiguity of sources, a reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items. While following this implicit rule allowed us to focus on the most notable concepts, creating new items could also help make the statements more precise. 

Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata.  [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between &quot;concept&quot; and &quot;political concept&quot;.]]
===== Concision =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were &quot;in the tree of another value&quot;. The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification :
*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized (we opened a discussion about this here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity&lt;nowiki/&gt;) The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize this kind of relationship (using &quot;instance of&quot; as transversal property and checking &quot;instance of or subclass of&quot;).

*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. Choosing the degree of precision is a problem similar to choosing whether or not to create a new item.
Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize redundancies. 

===== Quantification =====
Modelling quantitative statements was challenging. We mostly skipped those but made an attempt for one case : the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanegas-Cantarero|first=María M.|date=2020-12-01|title=Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901196|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=70|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for &quot;final energy consumption&quot;. There are such properties in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item  (e.g. the population of a town) on Wikipedia through dynamic infoboxes that are updated with Wikidata information. But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Therefore creating properties for every quantifiable characteristic may not be possible. An alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). 

[[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]]

Despite this possibility, since quantitative data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. 

Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward an external datasets and add quantitative statements if relevant.

===== Ontology =====
Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple types of entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. We reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements, but encountered struggles to model differences between ''process versus outcomes'', ''ideal versus reality'', ''phenomenon versus theory'' and ''discourses versus practices''. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. Another problem was to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was also difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory,'' for example, we did not manage to model the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented. Finally, we also would have needed more distinctions between ''discourses and practices.'' Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea.

Our first attempt to multiple &quot;natures&quot; of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory, and implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. To do so we have to decide how to split the different natures {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} and what will be the relationship between the resulting items. Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in Wikidata can quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Indeed, the relations between the different types of entities constituting the social worls are not simple nor consensual among philosophers of social science.  

For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q15080858}} posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)&lt;ref&gt;Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.&lt;/ref&gt;. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. 

In theory, such ontology can be implemented in Wikidata as it &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... A quick search seem to show that entities related to the social reality can quickly fall into heterogeneous and sometime contradictory root classes (see table below). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Item
!Existing root class entity
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q12705}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}
{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q132907471}}
|}

=== Future steps ===
Current {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} in Wikidata do not seem very informative to classify the aspects of our concept in a top-down manner. Our next steps will thus be to :  

* Export the existing model of the concept to keep track of each modelling steps (files and graphs screenshots)

*Explore if existing standards offer more relevant classes to categorize social entities (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology).
**CRMSoc : https://cidoc-crm.org/crmsoc/fm_releases
**Criteria for choosing an ontology = choose something that is used and maintained by a community (colleague feedback)
*Create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... based on a new reading of our sample of article and aligned with existing ontologies.
*Compare grounded theory/CAQDAS with knowledge modelling methods

== 3. Data visualisation ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below.

=== Filter statements ===

*Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH
*Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Properties visualisation ===

*Visualise the &quot;tree&quot; of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io)

=== Concepts visualisation ===

*Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. [[d:Wikidata:Scholia|Scholia]] request &quot;topic in context&quot;)
*Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons.

=== Mapping sources consensus ===

*Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible.

== 4. Writing ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). 

=== Advantages of Wikiversity ===
Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}&lt;/ref&gt;). The possibility to view the page history provide an exhaustive versionning of a paper, which constitute interesting data documenting the academic writing process (at first we did not comment the nature of our modifications but after thinking about this reuse possibility, we described it with more details). The contribution statistics based on the history also offers a new way to track author's contributions to a paper in a transparent way.

=== The issue of text interoperability ===
A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, but the management of references is lacking. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication (the only possibility is to export the page as a PDF and you may be reading this article in this format).   

There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? To what extent academic publisher will accept to publish &quot;remixed&quot; texts while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and this could be an interesting conversation to have in the open science community.  

== Discussion ==
Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping new methodological standards regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis even though such reasonning are likely present. The modelling process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing to avoid semantic confusion&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to &quot;navigate&quot; it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to &quot;navigate&quot; scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the compatibilities between writing publicly on a wiki page and engaging in classical publication processes.

A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build living literature reviews including knowledge graphs and wiki pages. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and include the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 

== Funding ==
This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&amp;_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603.

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
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    <title>Plurilingualism and plurilingual education in the past</title>
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{{Education}}{{Course}}
== Starting activity ==
Think about the following questions:

* What languages were used in schools in your country 100 years ago? Why do you think those languages were chosen?
* Can you think of a time when speaking more than one language was seen as a problem in education? Why might that have been the case? 
* How do you think colonisation or migration has influenced the languages spoken in schools around the world?
* Have you ever experienced or heard of a situation where a student was not allowed to speak their home language at school? What might have been the reason?

== Objectives ==
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

* Describe the historical development of societal multilingualism in ancient and modern societies
* Evaluate the impact of language policies on multilingualism and plurilingual education
* Critically reflect on the developments in language education  
* Explore and compare regional and global perspectives on multilingualism and plurilingual education

== Key words ==
societal multilingualism - plurilingual education - historical development - language contact - language policy

== Contents ==

# Introduction
# History of multilingualism
## Historical examples of multilingualism
## Ancient civilizations
## Medieval Europe
## The Early Modern period
## The Habsburg Empire
## Multilingualism beyond Europe
# History of plurilingual education
## The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education
## Shifting perspectives in the mid-20th century
## Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn”
# Self-assessment
# Resources to go further
# Bibliography

== Introduction ==
Societal multilingualism is by no means a new phenomenon; it has existed throughout human history. Franceschini describes it as a &quot;human potentiality which can be developed when circumstances permit it anywhere and at any time throughout human evolution&quot; (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2526). This contribution explores key aspects of multilingualism, focusing on its historical development, societal influences, and the challenges of its study.

== History of multilingualism ==
The circumstances under which societal multilingualism develops are diverse. Some of the most significant factors are (Franceschini, 2013; Mende, 2022b):

* Language contact and trade: Language contact, often driven by trade, has historically been a major catalyst for multilingualism (Braunmüller, 2018; Franceschini, 2013). Cities, as hubs of commerce and migration, have long been hotspots of linguistic diversity (Roelcke, 2022, p. 6; Mende, 2022a, pp. 122–124).
* Migration: The movement of people across regions has brought languages into contact, fostering linguistic exchange and diversity.
* Language policy: The recognition and promotion of certain languages as official or educational languages have had a profound impact on societal multilingualism. Language policies determine which languages are used, preserved, or marginalized.
* Education: Closely linked to this is the influence of the education system, as language policy decisions determine which languages are taught, and whether and how students' home languages, minority languages, and others are supported and included in the curriculum. The languages considered to be academic languages/languages of science have also changed over the centuries and have had a significant impact on societal multilingualism.
* Colonialism: Colonial systems often imposed the languages of the colonizers on indigenous populations, leading to the suppression or extinction of local languages. Romaine (2013, p. 44) highlights the power dynamics in such contexts, where dominant groups often imposed their languages on less powerful communities.
* Administration: Multilingualism has been shaped by institutional frameworks such as religious practices, and administrative policies. For example, imperial systems often required plurilingual competence for governance and trade.

=== Historical examples of multilingualism ===
The study of historical multilingualism is often constrained by the availability of written records. Regions with a strong tradition of written documentation have been studied more comprehensively in terms of historical multilingualism than regions with predominantly oral traditions. However, these well-documented areas and societies are not necessarily those with the most widespread multilingualism (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2525–2526). Researchers often rely on direct and indirect evidence, such as loanwords or multilingual inscriptions, to reconstruct historical language contact (Boschung &amp; Riehl, 2011, p. iii).

=== Ancient civilizations ===
The earliest evidence of multilingualism dates back to around 2600 BC and comes from the Sumerians: multilingual grammars and word lists on clay tablets were used in administration (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2). Further evidence of multilingualism comes from the Hittites, with clay tablets in Hittite, Sumerian and Akkadian, along with other languages (Dardano, 2011); or from the Egyptians, with multilingual steles in ancient Egypt. West Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BCE shows evidence of language contact between Greek and Anatolian languages (Ramón, 2022).

=== The Roman Empire ===
The linguistic situation during the Roman Empire has been relatively well researched. A large part of the population must have been multilingual – there is ample evidence of contact between Latin and other languages, partly due to the high mobility of groups such as the military, administrative staff, traders and slaves. Latin served as the official and educational language, while Greek held a special status. Those who did not have Latin as their first language (L1) had to learn either Greek or Latin. Important institutions such as the army were multilingual, and knowledge of Greek and Latin was also necessary for members of the imperial aristocracy. Although there was no explicit language policy, there was a certain need to learn Latin, which was apparently widely accepted by non-Latin speakers and large sections of the population (Adams, 2003; Adams et al., 2002; Franceschini, 2013, p. 2527; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). In the Roman Empire, Latin functioned as a lingua franca, learned by many as a second or third language for communication, trade, and military purposes. These multilingual speakers acquired Latin at varying levels of proficiency, similar to modern L2 learners. Over time, as native Latin speakers declined, learner-driven changes in the language led to the emergence of regional vernaculars known as ‘Vulgar Latin’ (Braunmüller, 2018, p. 300).

=== Medieval Europe ===
Medieval Europe was also characterised by multilingualism due to the demands of everyday life and work. This was particularly evident in spoken language, where there were no uniform standards, encouraging linguistic variation and flexibility. The gradual transformation of spoken Latin, for example, influenced by regional variations and non-native usage, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Romance languages in the Middle Ages (Smith, 2007, p. 22–24). Knowledge of several languages was considered useful. In trade, in particular, it was common to spend time in another city (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529; Mende, 2022b, p. 133). Receptive multilingualism/[[intercomprehension]] was widespread, especially in Scandinavia, where conversation partners spoke different languages but understood each other due to the genetic relationship between the languages. This practice was later pejoratively described by Haugen (1966) as 'semi-communication' (Braunmüller, 2007).

Plurilingual competences were necessary in specific areas, such as church networks, education (where Latin was the language of instruction) and governance (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2528–2529). With Latin, a common lingua franca was established for the first time in the Middle Ages and, at the same time, it was influenced by intensive contact with other languages (Smith, 2007).

=== The Early Modern period ===
The rise of nation-states in the early modern period brought a shift toward monolingualism and the codification of regional languages. Plurilingualism became less of a common practice and more of an elite skill or a sign of socially excluded minorities and was therefore not held in high regard. With the Enlightenment, language learning also came into focus; grammars of individual languages were developed.

However, mixed-language texts persisted, as various examples show: Riehl (2023) examines the mixing of languages in texts from the 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; centuries, including [https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/luther/tischred/index.html Luther's “Tischreden”] (table talks), in which he switched between German and Latin, the language of education. The switches partly imitate oral language use, e.g. switching to German to express emotions, but also to introduce and explain technical terms from the language of education, Latin. 

# Ich wolt gern, das sie unternumen wurden
# ''propter Epicureismum et quia multa venena''
# ''inserta sunt''. Er hat viel umb leib und leben und
# die seel bracht. Er ist ein ursach der
# sacramentirer. ''Quantum promovit grammaticam,''
# ''tantum nocuit evangelio''.
#
# Er ist ein schentlicher mensch gewest. Zwinglius
# ist durch in vorfurt; Egranum hat er auch bekert,
# der glaubet eben so viel, als er. Er starb auch
# dahin ''sine crux et sine lux''.
# Wenn ich jung were, so wolt ich ''Graecam''
# ''linguam perfecte'' studirn, so das ichs kundte, und
# wollte andere ''annotationes'' drein machen.

Example analysis of the Tischreden (Luther's comments on Erasmus' Annotationes (WA 5, 5670)), cited in Riehl (2023, p. 61), with Latin passages highlighted as in the original source.

Lüdi (2023), on the other hand, uses the correspondence between the Basel mathematician and natural scientist Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler in the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century to show how the two scientists used several languages to create, communicate and disseminate knowledge (‘plurilanguaging’). Working in multilingual and culturally diverse teams fostered creativity and scientific progress. 

=== The Habsburg Empire ===
An exception to the increasing monolingualisation in modern times was the Habsburg Empire, which maintained a pluralistic language policy for much of its history. German served as a supra-regional lingua franca, but was not the national language. Instead, the Habsburg Empire pursued a language policy aimed at linguistic autonomy: the 1867 Constitution guaranteed the equal rights of all languages in the crown lands; language coercion was prohibited (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2530–2531; Goebl, 1997). The Habsburg Empire also stood out in terms of its education system: Maria Theresa's school reform of 1774 introduced the so-called utraquism model, in which pupils were taught in their mother tongue and a second, more widely spoken language (e.g. German, Italian or Polish). However, also in the Habsburg Empire, a monolingual language policy gradually prevailed; at the same time, the regional differences ultimately led to considerable tensions (Goebl, 1997; Schjerve-Rindler &amp; Vetter, 2007).

=== Multilingualism beyond Europe ===

* '''South America''':

Pre-colonial South America was linguistically diverse, but colonization introduced European languages, often at the expense of indigenous ones. Assimilation policies led to the extinction of many local languages, and colonial languages like Spanish and Portuguese retained dominance even after independence (Franceschini, 2013, p. 2531–2532).

* '''China''':

Evidence of early multilingualism in China is sparse: There is no evidence of multilingualism in the area that is now China until 221 BC. This does not necessarily mean that the area was not multilingual prior to this time. Although there are traces of language contact, written sources from 1200 to 200 BC only provide information about the Chinese language. This changed with the non-Chinese Qing dynasty. From the 18th century onwards, there is also evidence of multilingual dictionaries (Boltz, 2018; Mende, 2022b).

* '''South Asia''':

Multilingualism has been a central feature of the South Asian region. It is primarily the result of contact over more than 3.000 years, during which time several language groups came into contact with each other. This led to the emergence of common linguistic features and the merging of language families. Sanskrit, Persian and English were particularly important as contact languages. Today, India has 23 official languages, and the 2011 census recorded 211 languages in total. The Ethnologue database lists 424 living indigenous languages (Bhatia &amp; Ritchie, 2013; Kulkarni-Joshi, 2019).

== History of plurilingual education ==
The history of plurilingual education is closely linked to the development of societal multilingualism. Factors such as migration flows, nationalist movements, colonial policies and the multilingual realities of work and everyday life have all shaped how educational systems respond to linguistic diversity. These influences are reflected in educational policies, as well as in approaches to language learning and teaching practices.

=== The rise of nation-states and the monolingual paradigm in education ===
Historically, prestigious languages such as Latin, Greek, and French were central to European education, while vernacular languages were often marginalized (Gogolin, 2021). The establishment of public education systems in Europe during the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; centuries coincided with the creation of nation-states. These systems were designed to promote a monolingual national identity, with the national language seen as essential for social cohesion and education (Gogolin, 2021, p. 297–298). This &quot;monolingual habitus&quot; (Gogolin, 1994) became deeply ingrained, with the assumption that all learning should occur in the national language.

The rise of nationalism, industrialization, and colonialism in the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and early 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; centuries further reinforced monolingual ideologies. Regional and minority languages were suppressed, and linguistic homogeneity was prioritized. This shift was described as a form of &quot;cultural violence&quot; (Galtung, 1990), leading to the devaluation of regional, minority, and migrant languages. Dominant national languages were imposed at the expense of linguistic diversity. For example, in New Zealand, English-only education policies caused the percentage of Māori-speaking children to drop from 90% in 1913 to less than 5% by 1975. Similarly, in the United States, societal pressure and restrictive language policies gradually reduced the language rights of immigrants, reflecting the dominance of English (García, 2014, p. 85).

=== Shifting perspectives in the mid-20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century ===
The mid-20th century marked a turning point in plurilingual education. Ethnic revival movements of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Era in the United States highlighted the failures of monolingual education for language-minority students. Bilingual education programmes began to emerge, such as the “Bilingual Education Act” of 1968 in the USA and Welsh- and Gaelic-medium schools in the UK. However, these programmes often prioritised the rapid acquisition of the dominant language rather than fostering true bilingualism (García, 2014, p. 86–87).

Traditional bilingual education frequently treated languages as separate entities, emphasizing strict separation to avoid &quot;cross-contamination.&quot; This approach, known as ‘parallel monolingualism’ (Heller, 1999), viewed bilingualism as two distinct monolingual systems. In this context, Lambert (1981) distinguishes between two key types of bilingualism: subtractive bilingualism, where the dominant language gradually replaces the minority language, leading to the erosion of the latter, and additive bilingualism, which promotes the coexistence of both languages, valuing them equally and fostering their parallel development (García and Wei, 2014, p. 49–50).

In Europe, efforts to address the needs of migrant children began in the 1960s, with programmes offering supplementary mother-tongue instruction. However, these initiatives were often voluntary, limited in scope, and focused on preparing children for potential return to their home countries rather than integrating plurilingualism into mainstream education (Fürstenau, 2011). Support for minority languages remained inconsistent, and many plurilingual children relied on private community initiatives to maintain their [[Heritage Language|heritage languages]] (Meissner, 2019, p. 225). 

=== Plurilingual competence and the “Multilingual Turn” ===
In recent decades, globalization and migration have driven a more positive interpretation of plurilingualism. International frameworks, such as the UN “Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities” (1993), emphasized the importance of preserving and valuing linguistic diversity (Meißner, 2019, p. 221; García, 2014, p. 86–87).

The Council of Europe and the European Union have also played a key role in promoting plurilingual education. Initiatives such as the “European Charter for regional or minority languages” (1992), the publication of the ''Common European Framework of Reference for Languages'' with the concept of plurilingual competence (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018), and numerous recommendations have emphasized the value of multilingualism and plurilingual and intercultural education (e.g. “Key competences for lifelong learning”; European Commission - Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2019;  “Council recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages”; Official Journal of the European Union (2019/C 189/03); Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum).

At the same time, language teaching approaches have emerged that seek to integrate all of a student's linguistic and cultural resources (e.g. pluralistic approaches [Link]) and translanguaging [Link]) to promote more inclusive and effective plurilingual education, recognising the fluidity and dynamism of language use. This shift in perspective is often referred to as the “[[Multulingual turn|Multilingual Turn]]” in education (Conteh &amp; Meier, 2014; May, 2013).

== Self-assessment ==

=== Reflexion (1) ===

* What are some of the challenges researchers face when studying historical multilingualism?
* Why might plurilingualism have been more accepted or even necessary in medieval Europe compared to later periods?
* How did the rise of nation-states in the Early Modern period affect the status of societal multilingualism and plurilingual education? Consider both the political and educational implications.

=== Self assessment ===
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which of the following factors contributed most to the development of societal multilingualism, according to the text?}
-A. Climate change
+B. Language contact and trade
-C. Technological innovation
-D. Religious conversion

{What does the term ‘parallel monolingualism’ refer to in bilingual education?}
-A. Teaching two languages with full integration
-B. Using one language at school and another at home
+C. Treating bilingualism as two separate monolingual systems
-D. Promoting only the dominant language
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Reflexion ===
Reflect on the concept of &quot;monolingual habitus&quot; in education.

How do you think this concept has influenced the way languages are taught and valued in your country’s education system?

== Resources to go further ==
Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328).

Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell.

Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes &amp; T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 

Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes &amp; T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' ( pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 

== Bibliography ==
Adams, J. N. (2003). ''Bilingualism and the Latin language''. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511482960 

Adams, J. N., Janse, M., &amp; Swain, S. (Eds). (2002). ''Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text''. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199245062.001.0001 

Bhatia, T. K., &amp; Ritchie, W. C. (2013). Bilingualism and multilingualism in South Asia. In T. K. Bhatia &amp; W. C. Ritchie (Eds), ''The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism'' (Second edition, pp. 843–870). Wiley-Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118332382 

Boltz, W. G. (2018). Multilingualism and Lingua Franca in the ancient Chinese world. In J. E. Braarvig &amp; M. J. Geller (Eds), ''Multilingualism, lingua franca and lingua sacra'' (pp. 401–426). Pro BUSINESS.

Boschung, D., &amp; Riehl, C. M. (2011). Einleitung: Historische Mehrsprachigkeit. In D. Boschung &amp; C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. iii–viii). Shaker.

Braunmüller, K. (2007). Receptive multilingualism in Northern Europe in the Middle Ages: A description of a scenario. In L. Zeevaert &amp; J. D. ten Thije (Eds), ''Receptive multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 25–47). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.04bra 

Braunmüller, K. (2018). Historical multilingualism. In ''Twelve lectures on multilingualism'' (pp. 299–328).

Conteh, J., &amp; Meier, G. (2014). ''The multilingual turn in languages education: Opportunities and challenges''. Buffalo. https://doi.org/10.21832/978178309224&lt;nowiki/&gt;6

Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2022). ''Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the importance of plurilingual and intercultural education for democratic culture. Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)1 and explanatory memorandum''. https://rm.coe.int/prems-013522-gbr-2508-cmrec-2022-1-et-expose-motifs-couv-a5-bat-web/1680a967b4ECML 

Dardano, P. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit im hethitischen Reich: Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Hethitischen und dem Akkadischen. In D. Boschung &amp; C. M. Riehl (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Workshop des Zentrums für Antike Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes (ZaKMiRa) und des Zentrums Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit (ZSM) an der Universität Köln, Juli 2008'' (pp. 47–60). Shaker.

European Commission. Directorate General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. (2019). ''Key competences for lifelong learning''. Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/569540 

Franceschini, R. (2013). History of multilingualism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), ''The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. 4 En-Ho'' (pp. 2526–2534). Wiley-Blackwell.

Fürstenau, S. (2011). Mehrsprachigkeit als Voraussetzung und Ziel schulischer Bildung. In S. Fürstenau &amp; M. Gomolla (Eds), ''Migration und schulischer Wandel. Leistungsbeurteilung'' (pp. 25–50). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage.

Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''27''(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005

García, O. (2014). Multilingualism and language education. In C. Leung &amp; B. V. Street (Eds), ''The Routledge companion to English studies'' (pp. 84–99). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315852515 

García, O., &amp; Wei, L. (2014). ''Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education''. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London.

Goebl, H. (1997). Le rappel de l’ histoire: Le plurilinguisme dans la vieille monarchie habsbourgeoise. ''Sociolinguistica'', ''11'', 109–122.

Gogolin, I. (1994). ''Der monolinguale Habitus der multilingualen Schule''. Waxmann.

Gogolin, I. (2021). Multilingualism: A threat to public education or a resource in public education? – European histories and realities. ''European Educational Research Journal EERJ'', ''20''(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904120981507 

Haugen, E. (1966). Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia. ''Sociological Inquiry'', ''36''(2), 280–297.

Heller, M. (1999). ''Linguistic minorities and modernity: A sociolinguistic ethnography''. Longman.

Kulkarni-Joshi, S. (2019). Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews. ''Journal of Biosciences'', ''44''(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 

Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism: Its nature and significance. In W. E. Lambert, C. E. Snow, B. A. Goldfield, A. U. Chamot, &amp; S. R. Cahir (Eds), ''Faces and facets of bilingualism.'' (pp. 1–6). Center for Applied Linguistics, P. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED216530 

Lüdi, G. (2023). Mehrsprachigkeit in der Wissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert am Beispiel der Basler Mathematiker und Naturwissenschaftler Daniel Bernoulli und Leonhard Euler. In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, &amp; P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 337–352). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 

May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL and bilingual education''. Routledge. 

Meissner, F.-J. (2019). Plurilingual education. In C. Fäcke &amp; F.-J. Meissner (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeits- und Mehrkulturalitätsdidaktik'' (pp. 2017–2235). Narr Francke Attempto.

Mende, J.-K. (2022a). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Deutschland. In C. Földes &amp; T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 107–130). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 

Mende, J.-K. (2022b). Geschichte von Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa und in der Welt. In C. Földes &amp; T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 131–152). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 

Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 22 May 2019, No. 2019/C 189/03 (22 2018). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0003 

Ramón, J. L. G. (2022). Sprachen in Kontakt in Griechenland und Kleinasien im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. In C. Földes &amp; T. Roelcke (Eds), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (pp. 23–46). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444 

Riehl, C. M. (2023). Sprachmischung in historischen Texten – eine Herausforderung an die kontaktlinguistische Theoriebildung? In R. Franceschini, M. Hüning, &amp; P. Maitz (Eds), ''Historische Mehrsprachigkeit: Europäische Perspektiven'' (pp. 57–76). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111338668 

Roelcke, T. (2022). Viel- und Mehrsprachigkeit. In C. Földes &amp; T. Roelcke (Hrsg.), ''Handbuch Mehrsprachigkeit'' (Bd. 22, S. 3–28). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110623444

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Schjerve-Rindler, R., &amp; Vetter, E. (2007). Linguistic diversity in Habsburg Austria as a model for modern European language policy. In J. D. ten Thije &amp; L. Zeevaert (Eds), ''Receptive Multilingualism'' (Vol. 6, pp. 49–70). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsm.6.05sch 

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UN General Assembly (1993). ''Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities''. A/RES/48/138, 20 December 1993. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1993/en/11497

==Credits==
This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : 

* Margareta Strasser (Universität Salzburg)

[[Portal: Plurilingual education]]

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      <text bytes="86440" sha1="hay1u5g7lpn9y4nlczsj64w92r5h67n" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation, when vertices circle over the chords of an &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; polygon. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns. The angle between two &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chords is &lt;math&gt;i \times 45^\circ&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords  form the great circle edge polygon of the 16-cell {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

We shall refer to this isoclinic rotation as the ''characteristic left rotation of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's counterclockwise rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; {8/3} star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the characteristic left rotation of the 16-cell, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted 3 times, bent into a circle in the fourth dimension. Each rung is a tesseract edge.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in Clifford parallel invariant planes containing 16-cell edges, for example in the characteristic left rotation of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

We can also rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in Clifford parallel invariant planes containing 24-cell edges. A complete 24-cell great circle edge plane revolution requires 720° like a complete 16-cell great circle edge plane revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each.  An isoclinic rotation by 60° in any invariant central plane containing a 24-cell edge takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. All 24 vertices move at once on Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions. The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit, and its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} shows 2 dodecagram isoclines of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; chords in the 24-cell]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant planes containing a single &lt;math&gt;r_{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge each, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''characteristic left rotation of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's counterclockwise rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; 2{12/5} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The orbit of each vertex traces an isocline circle in 4-space over 12 &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane 5 times in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation. 

[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/8}=8{3}&lt;small&gt; &lt;/small&gt;shows 8 of 32 skew&lt;small&gt; &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; triangles in the 24-cell]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing six &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges each, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; 8{3} star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_4&lt;/math&gt;. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chord makes four 30° turns.  Eight Clifford parallel skew triangle geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 8 twisted parallel strands {24/8}=8{3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In every 180° of isoclinic rotation each vertex circles a skew triangle and returns to its original position, but the 24-cell returns to its original orientation only after each vertex has completed circuits of the four distinct skew triangles which intersect at the vertex. The isocline curves over a self-intersecting dodecagram of 12 &lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt; chords.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Edge chord
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_1&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/1}={24}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|15°
|165°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_2&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/2}=2{12}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/10}=2{12/5}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|30°
|150°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_3&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/3}=3{8}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/9}=3{8/3}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|45°
|135°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/4}=4{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/8}=8{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/7}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|75°
|105°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{24/6}=6{4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|90°
|90°
|}

By examining the chords &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon we found three distinct isoclinic rotations. If we examine the chords &lt;math&gt;t_i&lt;/math&gt; of the 24-cell's {24}-gon we find these and also three other distinct isoclinic rotations.  

Each row of the table is a distinct isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell characterized by a pair of chords that sum to 180°. The edge chords form the rotation's edge {24}-gon, and lie in invariant planes of the rotation. The isocline chords form the rotation's Clifford {24}-gon and lie in the invariant planes completely orthogonal to the edge planes. The rotational angle between successive edge chords and the rotational angle between successive isocline chords also sum to 180°.  

We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in Clifford parallel invariant planes containing 16-cell edges in 6 Clifford parallel invariant great square planes containing four &lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt; edges each, over &lt;math&gt;t_{6}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The &lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell-&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord. The edge polygon and the Clifford polygon are both {24/6}=6{4}. This is the ''characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell''.  

The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt; chord makes six 15° turns.  Six Clifford parallel skew triangle geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of two twisted parallel strands that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In every 360° of isoclinic rotation each vertex circles a skew great square returns to its original position, but the 24-cell returns to its original orientation only after each vertex has completed circuits of the three distinct skew squares which intersect at the vertex and the three distinct skew triangles which intersect at its antipodal vertex. The isocline curves over a self-intersecting {24}-gon of &lt;math&gt;t_6&lt;/math&gt; chords.  

...  

{{Clear}}

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This [''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell]'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This [''invariant great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell]'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''invariant great decagon rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This [''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell]'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;26\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Athena problem</title>
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      <text bytes="50061" sha1="b5sril2q543abmsj7ar5tjrndxx20b0" xml:space="preserve">{{mathematics}}
'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b''):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
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      <text bytes="50690" sha1="1w0vzft5uae1oofl5w27ka1fh33kz8b" xml:space="preserve">{{mathematics}}
'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b''):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2817915</id>
      <parentid>2817911</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-08T11:22:49Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Athena241</username>
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      <text bytes="51300" sha1="osg0x9hpjgzpsh20pvqmnpsa81morv8" xml:space="preserve">{{mathematics}}
'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both &quot;numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; and &quot;length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in bases ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;), also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b''):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2817917</id>
      <parentid>2817915</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-08T11:28:29Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Athena241</username>
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      <text bytes="51496" sha1="lpngi7kcmqg67k0did3lv8vbe86b6bt" xml:space="preserve">{{mathematics}}
'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both &quot;numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; and &quot;length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b''):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
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== [[Special:Contributions/2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701]] ==

* {{user|2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701}}
Cross-wiki vandalism. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:21, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:22, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
::Thank you, Koavf! --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:26, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

== Maintenance vs administration ==

Bumping a [[User_talk:Tule-hog#Wikiversity:Administration|redirect for discussion]] concerning custodianship. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 09:50, 6 October 2024 (UTC)

== Vandalism ==

Please block [[Special:Contributions/76.121.217.240]]. --[[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 03:09, 24 November 2024 (UTC)

:Not a local sysop here but {{done}}. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 03:18, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:: {{comment}} Page deleted. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:21, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:::Hi it's me again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/216.186.51.108]] &amp;mdash; @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:54, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
::::{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:58, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::Hello. Again and again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/152.22.75.23]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:48, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
::::::Already done by Aramil. I think Wikiversity should take action against proxies. I suspect that these IPs are proxies and belong to the same person. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:52, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::::Possibly {{ping|Mu301}} has some experience dealing with proxies? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:58, 4 December 2024 (UTC)

== Import of aiCAMstir ==

[[File:'aiCAMstir' icon, © Stephan Kallee, AluStir, CC-BY-SA 4.0.png|thumb|aiCAMstir]]
The '''aiCAMstir''' project is a non-commercial collaborative project on using Artificial Intelligence in Welding. We want to create a mirror of the www_aicamstir_com web site, before this will be taken down. We do not want to add the links to the project partners but include references to published papers. However, the software settings seems to restrict the use of web links, and recommended to get in touch with an admin (By the way, I am an [[Commons:Category:'aiCAMstir'|experienced Wikimedia user]]). Do you want to allow me, to insert weblinks into references? [[User:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;]] ([[User talk:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|contribs]]) 11:27, 1 February 2025 (UTC)

== Block of MarsSterlingTurner ==
(Deleted and reposted to [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Block_of_MarsSterlingTurner]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:42, 10 April 2025 (UTC))

== Edit warring by [[User:Harold Foppele]] ==

{{user|Harold Foppele}} is edit warring at [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?]] (wikidebate) to add some long AI-generated text with broken wikisyntax and insists on my talk page they don't need to address my 4 specific reasons for the removal ([[Special:Diff/2784967]]) such as the broken wikisyntax. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 14:51, 13 January 2026 (UTC)

:You do not revert an editors contribution. 
:You done that before, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Prototyperspective&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10| See here] I do not have to address your 4 reasons, that is where a discussion/talk page is for. What Wikidebate Is Not: Explicitly, it's not a platform to defend preferred points of view (similar to WP:NOTSOAPBOX or WP:NOTFORUM). Focus on gathering all sides neutrally, not advocacy. This is not a discussion. Removing edits that you do not like in a debat is not done [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:41, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
:I've moved the LLM-generated text to [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?/Response from an LLM]]. The contribution breaks the wikisyntax and doesn't follow the applied format as the other arguments. Perhaps for the resource, a subpage with an input from an AI (which afaik tries its best to maintain a NPOV) could be useful. I'd advise [[User:Harold Foppele]] to provide a link to the conversation on said subpage. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:18, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks, I think this is solved now. Hopefully, the user will interact more constructively in the future. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:40, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
:::If you talk to a user before acting that would prevent problems. Beside a curator, no one is allowed to edit users contributions. Esp. in debates. Files are even stricter there. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:05, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
::::That is not true. I talked to you in 1. the edit summary and 2. on my talk page where you insisted &quot;this is not a discussion&quot; and that you don't need to address my 4 reasons. People are not free to dump anything they want onto pages and then have it stay there with reverts and removals being impossible. Contentious edits like that need consensus for inclusion or the removal reasons to be addressed. Your interaction has been very nonconstructive and hopefully this is not a wider phenomenon on the site which if so would cause massive quality problems. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:35, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::You did mention it in the edit while deleting it. The 'contentious' comment is still there with an expansion to a subpage. It is not you who decide what is dump or not, or what is contentious, that is what custodians are for. A simple comment with a ping at the talk page or the user page would be sufficient to start a discussion and reach consensus. If no consensus is reached, the help of a custodian can be sought. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. Wikiversity lives by AGF (Assume Good Faith). So I assume that for you as well. I admire @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] for a brilliant solution. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:24, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::One can remove contents and the burden is on the person who wants to add the new info to address the reasons in a comment and/or to address the reasons via a new way. Adding it to a subpage and then linking that is what you could have done, not requiring me to go here to get help. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. You aren't free to add any content to any page and have authority for it to stay there. I'll once again close my comment that your interaction has not been constructive; you did not address points or suggest or implement a solution but just insisted you don't even need to address them and just went to do edit warring. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:59, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::::Indeed, you are not constructive. Just stuborn. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:09, 15 January 2026 (UTC)

== New curatorship request ==

I started a curatorship request at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship/Codename Noreste]]. Can a custodian place it in [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|the site notice]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:51, 23 March 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:41, 23 March 2026 (UTC)
::Can you increment [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice id]] by one digit? If done, the site notice will appear again. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:30, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
:::A little more than a week has passed, and there is one support. Would a custodian close my request, please? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:26, 31 March 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done}} https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki%3ASitenotice_id&amp;diff=2802001&amp;oldid=2800237 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:51, 31 March 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Call for custodians and bureaucrats]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:46, 12 May 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Awesome. Could you self-nominate at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I filed my nomination, but according to the custodianship policy, I am running for probationary custodianship, and after a period of four weeks, I will run again for permanent custodianship to determine if I have performed well and professionally. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:00, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:I'm also willing to run for bureaucratship as I imagine my activity levels should remain sufficient. I could put in a nomination within the next week or so. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:55, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::Wonderful. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:09, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:Would also like to help! [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:25, 13 May 2026 (UTC)
::Merci beaucoup :) When you're ready, you can self-nominate for probationary custodianship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
: Would an uninvolved bureaucrat close the following discussions? Roughly a week has passed. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:53, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Ping @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]]: Two probationary custodian nominations are ready for closing if you're available. Also note that there are two bureaucrat nominations that should stay open for another week or so. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:57, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:51, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: Thanks, Mike, appreciate it. 
:::: It's now been a couple of weeks for the two bureaucrat nominations, so I think they could be closed. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:10, 28 May 2026 (UTC)

:::::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:24, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodian mentors==
If you have more than 3 months experience as a custodian, please consider listing yourself as potential mentor for probationary custodians: [[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:27, 12 May 2026 (UTC)

== 2FA requirement for bureaucrats ==

Per [[Special:ListGroupRights#bureaucrat]] and per [[phab:T423120|T423120]], you'll notice that two-factor authentication is required to use bureaucrat permissions (and will soon be enforced). Our existing bureaucrats should take a moment to verify and utilize two-factor authentication. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:31, 27 May 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for the reminder. Bureaucrats should have received emails. I switched it on recently. Relatively painless and hasn't disrupted workflow, so seems to be well implemented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:13, 28 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I turned this on. I would highly recommend that anyone with rights (custodians, curators, etc.) enable this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:42, 30 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>8t2vstj57vcmmks1gzl5frxkx2amnf5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817870</id>
      <parentid>2817868</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:17:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Redundant user rights */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2817870</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19408" sha1="p6f72l6w3x8p7x2v1msiwjrtsj98flv" xml:space="preserve">{{Archive|Wikiversity:Notices for custodians}}

== [[Special:Contributions/2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701]] ==

* {{user|2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701}}
Cross-wiki vandalism. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:21, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:22, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
::Thank you, Koavf! --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:26, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

== Maintenance vs administration ==

Bumping a [[User_talk:Tule-hog#Wikiversity:Administration|redirect for discussion]] concerning custodianship. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 09:50, 6 October 2024 (UTC)

== Vandalism ==

Please block [[Special:Contributions/76.121.217.240]]. --[[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 03:09, 24 November 2024 (UTC)

:Not a local sysop here but {{done}}. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 03:18, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:: {{comment}} Page deleted. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:21, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:::Hi it's me again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/216.186.51.108]] &amp;mdash; @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:54, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
::::{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:58, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::Hello. Again and again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/152.22.75.23]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:48, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
::::::Already done by Aramil. I think Wikiversity should take action against proxies. I suspect that these IPs are proxies and belong to the same person. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:52, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::::Possibly {{ping|Mu301}} has some experience dealing with proxies? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:58, 4 December 2024 (UTC)

== Import of aiCAMstir ==

[[File:'aiCAMstir' icon, © Stephan Kallee, AluStir, CC-BY-SA 4.0.png|thumb|aiCAMstir]]
The '''aiCAMstir''' project is a non-commercial collaborative project on using Artificial Intelligence in Welding. We want to create a mirror of the www_aicamstir_com web site, before this will be taken down. We do not want to add the links to the project partners but include references to published papers. However, the software settings seems to restrict the use of web links, and recommended to get in touch with an admin (By the way, I am an [[Commons:Category:'aiCAMstir'|experienced Wikimedia user]]). Do you want to allow me, to insert weblinks into references? [[User:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;]] ([[User talk:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|contribs]]) 11:27, 1 February 2025 (UTC)

== Block of MarsSterlingTurner ==
(Deleted and reposted to [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Block_of_MarsSterlingTurner]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:42, 10 April 2025 (UTC))

== Edit warring by [[User:Harold Foppele]] ==

{{user|Harold Foppele}} is edit warring at [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?]] (wikidebate) to add some long AI-generated text with broken wikisyntax and insists on my talk page they don't need to address my 4 specific reasons for the removal ([[Special:Diff/2784967]]) such as the broken wikisyntax. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 14:51, 13 January 2026 (UTC)

:You do not revert an editors contribution. 
:You done that before, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Prototyperspective&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10| See here] I do not have to address your 4 reasons, that is where a discussion/talk page is for. What Wikidebate Is Not: Explicitly, it's not a platform to defend preferred points of view (similar to WP:NOTSOAPBOX or WP:NOTFORUM). Focus on gathering all sides neutrally, not advocacy. This is not a discussion. Removing edits that you do not like in a debat is not done [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:41, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
:I've moved the LLM-generated text to [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?/Response from an LLM]]. The contribution breaks the wikisyntax and doesn't follow the applied format as the other arguments. Perhaps for the resource, a subpage with an input from an AI (which afaik tries its best to maintain a NPOV) could be useful. I'd advise [[User:Harold Foppele]] to provide a link to the conversation on said subpage. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:18, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks, I think this is solved now. Hopefully, the user will interact more constructively in the future. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:40, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
:::If you talk to a user before acting that would prevent problems. Beside a curator, no one is allowed to edit users contributions. Esp. in debates. Files are even stricter there. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:05, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
::::That is not true. I talked to you in 1. the edit summary and 2. on my talk page where you insisted &quot;this is not a discussion&quot; and that you don't need to address my 4 reasons. People are not free to dump anything they want onto pages and then have it stay there with reverts and removals being impossible. Contentious edits like that need consensus for inclusion or the removal reasons to be addressed. Your interaction has been very nonconstructive and hopefully this is not a wider phenomenon on the site which if so would cause massive quality problems. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:35, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::You did mention it in the edit while deleting it. The 'contentious' comment is still there with an expansion to a subpage. It is not you who decide what is dump or not, or what is contentious, that is what custodians are for. A simple comment with a ping at the talk page or the user page would be sufficient to start a discussion and reach consensus. If no consensus is reached, the help of a custodian can be sought. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. Wikiversity lives by AGF (Assume Good Faith). So I assume that for you as well. I admire @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] for a brilliant solution. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:24, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::One can remove contents and the burden is on the person who wants to add the new info to address the reasons in a comment and/or to address the reasons via a new way. Adding it to a subpage and then linking that is what you could have done, not requiring me to go here to get help. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. You aren't free to add any content to any page and have authority for it to stay there. I'll once again close my comment that your interaction has not been constructive; you did not address points or suggest or implement a solution but just insisted you don't even need to address them and just went to do edit warring. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:59, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::::Indeed, you are not constructive. Just stuborn. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:09, 15 January 2026 (UTC)

== New curatorship request ==

I started a curatorship request at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship/Codename Noreste]]. Can a custodian place it in [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|the site notice]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:51, 23 March 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:41, 23 March 2026 (UTC)
::Can you increment [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice id]] by one digit? If done, the site notice will appear again. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:30, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
:::A little more than a week has passed, and there is one support. Would a custodian close my request, please? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:26, 31 March 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done}} https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki%3ASitenotice_id&amp;diff=2802001&amp;oldid=2800237 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:51, 31 March 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Call for custodians and bureaucrats]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:46, 12 May 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Awesome. Could you self-nominate at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I filed my nomination, but according to the custodianship policy, I am running for probationary custodianship, and after a period of four weeks, I will run again for permanent custodianship to determine if I have performed well and professionally. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:00, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:I'm also willing to run for bureaucratship as I imagine my activity levels should remain sufficient. I could put in a nomination within the next week or so. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:55, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::Wonderful. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:09, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:Would also like to help! [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:25, 13 May 2026 (UTC)
::Merci beaucoup :) When you're ready, you can self-nominate for probationary custodianship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
: Would an uninvolved bureaucrat close the following discussions? Roughly a week has passed. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:53, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Ping @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]]: Two probationary custodian nominations are ready for closing if you're available. Also note that there are two bureaucrat nominations that should stay open for another week or so. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:57, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:51, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: Thanks, Mike, appreciate it. 
:::: It's now been a couple of weeks for the two bureaucrat nominations, so I think they could be closed. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:10, 28 May 2026 (UTC)

:::::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:24, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodian mentors==
If you have more than 3 months experience as a custodian, please consider listing yourself as potential mentor for probationary custodians: [[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:27, 12 May 2026 (UTC)

== 2FA requirement for bureaucrats ==

Per [[Special:ListGroupRights#bureaucrat]] and per [[phab:T423120|T423120]], you'll notice that two-factor authentication is required to use bureaucrat permissions (and will soon be enforced). Our existing bureaucrats should take a moment to verify and utilize two-factor authentication. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:31, 27 May 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for the reminder. Bureaucrats should have received emails. I switched it on recently. Relatively painless and hasn't disrupted workflow, so seems to be well implemented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:13, 28 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I turned this on. I would highly recommend that anyone with rights (custodians, curators, etc.) enable this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:42, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

== Redundant user rights ==

I recently changed the user rights for community approved custodians and bureaucrats per consensus. I just realized that I removed curator for Atcovi when adding 'crat thinking that curator was redundant. I then realized that I haven't been consistent about removing old bits. I don't have a strong opinion on this. Just asking. Should curator rights be removed when adding custodian or 'crat? I've never been a curator and don't currently have that bit set. Some accounts still have curator with other rights and others (like mine) don't. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:00, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:If someone steps down as bureaucrat but wants to remain a custodian/curator, then having those rights as well ensures that they won't be accidentally removed. This exact scenario just happened on another wiki where I am a bureaucrat. It can't hurt to have the redundant ones, if you ask me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:02, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Currently]], all the 'crats have custodian; Koavf additionally has curator, which none of the other 'crat accounts have. PieWriter, MathXplore, and Koavf are the only custodians to also have curator. [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&amp;group=sysop&amp;wpsubmit=&amp;wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&amp;limit=50] I propose that we should either a) add curator to all 'crats and custodians or b) remove the redundant bit from all accounts. I don't have a preference, I'm just advocating for consistency and clarity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:49, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I lean more on removing the curator bit from all custodians and bureaucrats, as custodians themselves have most, if not all curator user rights, followed by some additional user rights. I planned to remove the curator bit from custodians and to leave a note here about my action(s) for review, until I saw this message. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:54, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I'm inclined to follow the [[w:Principle of least privilege]] and remove redundant bits. A custodian or 'crat doesn't need curator. Granting these bits later should be no big deal. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:13, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Agree with principles of simplicity and consistency. Plus that agreed practice should be documented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:18, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

{{ping|Atcovi|PieWriter|MathXplore|Koavf}} Pinging contributors who may have an interest in discussion. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:I'm okay with whatever. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:19, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Removing the curator is OK. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:33, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Seems fine to me [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:37, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{done}} for all three above. Atcovi already removed his own curator rights as it was redundant to custodian rights. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>p6f72l6w3x8p7x2v1msiwjrtsj98flv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817872</id>
      <parentid>2817870</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:17:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deleting subpages */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="20964" sha1="9x72k0z3gl42bfticv2ka25dxyvo3zi" xml:space="preserve">{{Archive|Wikiversity:Notices for custodians}}

== [[Special:Contributions/2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701]] ==

* {{user|2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701}}
Cross-wiki vandalism. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:21, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:22, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
::Thank you, Koavf! --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:26, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

== Maintenance vs administration ==

Bumping a [[User_talk:Tule-hog#Wikiversity:Administration|redirect for discussion]] concerning custodianship. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 09:50, 6 October 2024 (UTC)

== Vandalism ==

Please block [[Special:Contributions/76.121.217.240]]. --[[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 03:09, 24 November 2024 (UTC)

:Not a local sysop here but {{done}}. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 03:18, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:: {{comment}} Page deleted. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:21, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:::Hi it's me again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/216.186.51.108]] &amp;mdash; @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:54, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
::::{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:58, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::Hello. Again and again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/152.22.75.23]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:48, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
::::::Already done by Aramil. I think Wikiversity should take action against proxies. I suspect that these IPs are proxies and belong to the same person. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:52, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::::Possibly {{ping|Mu301}} has some experience dealing with proxies? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:58, 4 December 2024 (UTC)

== Import of aiCAMstir ==

[[File:'aiCAMstir' icon, © Stephan Kallee, AluStir, CC-BY-SA 4.0.png|thumb|aiCAMstir]]
The '''aiCAMstir''' project is a non-commercial collaborative project on using Artificial Intelligence in Welding. We want to create a mirror of the www_aicamstir_com web site, before this will be taken down. We do not want to add the links to the project partners but include references to published papers. However, the software settings seems to restrict the use of web links, and recommended to get in touch with an admin (By the way, I am an [[Commons:Category:'aiCAMstir'|experienced Wikimedia user]]). Do you want to allow me, to insert weblinks into references? [[User:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;]] ([[User talk:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|contribs]]) 11:27, 1 February 2025 (UTC)

== Block of MarsSterlingTurner ==
(Deleted and reposted to [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Block_of_MarsSterlingTurner]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:42, 10 April 2025 (UTC))

== Edit warring by [[User:Harold Foppele]] ==

{{user|Harold Foppele}} is edit warring at [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?]] (wikidebate) to add some long AI-generated text with broken wikisyntax and insists on my talk page they don't need to address my 4 specific reasons for the removal ([[Special:Diff/2784967]]) such as the broken wikisyntax. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 14:51, 13 January 2026 (UTC)

:You do not revert an editors contribution. 
:You done that before, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Prototyperspective&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10| See here] I do not have to address your 4 reasons, that is where a discussion/talk page is for. What Wikidebate Is Not: Explicitly, it's not a platform to defend preferred points of view (similar to WP:NOTSOAPBOX or WP:NOTFORUM). Focus on gathering all sides neutrally, not advocacy. This is not a discussion. Removing edits that you do not like in a debat is not done [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:41, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
:I've moved the LLM-generated text to [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?/Response from an LLM]]. The contribution breaks the wikisyntax and doesn't follow the applied format as the other arguments. Perhaps for the resource, a subpage with an input from an AI (which afaik tries its best to maintain a NPOV) could be useful. I'd advise [[User:Harold Foppele]] to provide a link to the conversation on said subpage. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:18, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks, I think this is solved now. Hopefully, the user will interact more constructively in the future. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:40, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
:::If you talk to a user before acting that would prevent problems. Beside a curator, no one is allowed to edit users contributions. Esp. in debates. Files are even stricter there. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:05, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
::::That is not true. I talked to you in 1. the edit summary and 2. on my talk page where you insisted &quot;this is not a discussion&quot; and that you don't need to address my 4 reasons. People are not free to dump anything they want onto pages and then have it stay there with reverts and removals being impossible. Contentious edits like that need consensus for inclusion or the removal reasons to be addressed. Your interaction has been very nonconstructive and hopefully this is not a wider phenomenon on the site which if so would cause massive quality problems. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:35, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::You did mention it in the edit while deleting it. The 'contentious' comment is still there with an expansion to a subpage. It is not you who decide what is dump or not, or what is contentious, that is what custodians are for. A simple comment with a ping at the talk page or the user page would be sufficient to start a discussion and reach consensus. If no consensus is reached, the help of a custodian can be sought. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. Wikiversity lives by AGF (Assume Good Faith). So I assume that for you as well. I admire @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] for a brilliant solution. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:24, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::One can remove contents and the burden is on the person who wants to add the new info to address the reasons in a comment and/or to address the reasons via a new way. Adding it to a subpage and then linking that is what you could have done, not requiring me to go here to get help. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. You aren't free to add any content to any page and have authority for it to stay there. I'll once again close my comment that your interaction has not been constructive; you did not address points or suggest or implement a solution but just insisted you don't even need to address them and just went to do edit warring. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:59, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::::Indeed, you are not constructive. Just stuborn. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:09, 15 January 2026 (UTC)

== New curatorship request ==

I started a curatorship request at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship/Codename Noreste]]. Can a custodian place it in [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|the site notice]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:51, 23 March 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:41, 23 March 2026 (UTC)
::Can you increment [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice id]] by one digit? If done, the site notice will appear again. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:30, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
:::A little more than a week has passed, and there is one support. Would a custodian close my request, please? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:26, 31 March 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done}} https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki%3ASitenotice_id&amp;diff=2802001&amp;oldid=2800237 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:51, 31 March 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Call for custodians and bureaucrats]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:46, 12 May 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Awesome. Could you self-nominate at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I filed my nomination, but according to the custodianship policy, I am running for probationary custodianship, and after a period of four weeks, I will run again for permanent custodianship to determine if I have performed well and professionally. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:00, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:I'm also willing to run for bureaucratship as I imagine my activity levels should remain sufficient. I could put in a nomination within the next week or so. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:55, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::Wonderful. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:09, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:Would also like to help! [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:25, 13 May 2026 (UTC)
::Merci beaucoup :) When you're ready, you can self-nominate for probationary custodianship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
: Would an uninvolved bureaucrat close the following discussions? Roughly a week has passed. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:53, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Ping @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]]: Two probationary custodian nominations are ready for closing if you're available. Also note that there are two bureaucrat nominations that should stay open for another week or so. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:57, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:51, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: Thanks, Mike, appreciate it. 
:::: It's now been a couple of weeks for the two bureaucrat nominations, so I think they could be closed. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:10, 28 May 2026 (UTC)

:::::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:24, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodian mentors==
If you have more than 3 months experience as a custodian, please consider listing yourself as potential mentor for probationary custodians: [[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:27, 12 May 2026 (UTC)

== 2FA requirement for bureaucrats ==

Per [[Special:ListGroupRights#bureaucrat]] and per [[phab:T423120|T423120]], you'll notice that two-factor authentication is required to use bureaucrat permissions (and will soon be enforced). Our existing bureaucrats should take a moment to verify and utilize two-factor authentication. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:31, 27 May 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for the reminder. Bureaucrats should have received emails. I switched it on recently. Relatively painless and hasn't disrupted workflow, so seems to be well implemented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:13, 28 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I turned this on. I would highly recommend that anyone with rights (custodians, curators, etc.) enable this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:42, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

== Redundant user rights ==

I recently changed the user rights for community approved custodians and bureaucrats per consensus. I just realized that I removed curator for Atcovi when adding 'crat thinking that curator was redundant. I then realized that I haven't been consistent about removing old bits. I don't have a strong opinion on this. Just asking. Should curator rights be removed when adding custodian or 'crat? I've never been a curator and don't currently have that bit set. Some accounts still have curator with other rights and others (like mine) don't. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:00, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:If someone steps down as bureaucrat but wants to remain a custodian/curator, then having those rights as well ensures that they won't be accidentally removed. This exact scenario just happened on another wiki where I am a bureaucrat. It can't hurt to have the redundant ones, if you ask me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:02, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Currently]], all the 'crats have custodian; Koavf additionally has curator, which none of the other 'crat accounts have. PieWriter, MathXplore, and Koavf are the only custodians to also have curator. [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&amp;group=sysop&amp;wpsubmit=&amp;wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&amp;limit=50] I propose that we should either a) add curator to all 'crats and custodians or b) remove the redundant bit from all accounts. I don't have a preference, I'm just advocating for consistency and clarity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:49, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I lean more on removing the curator bit from all custodians and bureaucrats, as custodians themselves have most, if not all curator user rights, followed by some additional user rights. I planned to remove the curator bit from custodians and to leave a note here about my action(s) for review, until I saw this message. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:54, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I'm inclined to follow the [[w:Principle of least privilege]] and remove redundant bits. A custodian or 'crat doesn't need curator. Granting these bits later should be no big deal. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:13, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Agree with principles of simplicity and consistency. Plus that agreed practice should be documented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:18, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

{{ping|Atcovi|PieWriter|MathXplore|Koavf}} Pinging contributors who may have an interest in discussion. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:I'm okay with whatever. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:19, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Removing the curator is OK. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:33, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Seems fine to me [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:37, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{done}} for all three above. Atcovi already removed his own curator rights as it was redundant to custodian rights. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

== Deleting subpages ==

What script do you suggest for deleting a large number of subpages? I found:
* [[Wikipedia:User:Splarka/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
* [[Wikisource:User:George Orwell III/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:31, 5 June 2026 (UTC)

:I use MassDelete. You can find a copy at [[User:Koavf/common.js]] and enable it at [[Special:MassDelete]] once you have added it to your JS page(s). ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:00, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
: I use MassDelete by DreamRimmer, see [[m:User:DreamRimmer/MassDelete.js]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:14, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
:As far as I dont know MassDelete, I would try to do it with [[special:nuke]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
::Nuke expires, so if a page was created more than &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; days ago, then Nuke won't catch it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:15, 8 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>9x72k0z3gl42bfticv2ka25dxyvo3zi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817874</id>
      <parentid>2817872</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-07T18:18:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Guy vandegrift rights change */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2817874</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22059" sha1="oszh69fy6mpub5ogjcg9bzajhq5f56o" xml:space="preserve">{{Archive|Wikiversity:Notices for custodians}}

== [[Special:Contributions/2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701]] ==

* {{user|2600:1003:B05E:6EC6:0:33:95BF:E701}}
Cross-wiki vandalism. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:21, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 01:22, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
::Thank you, Koavf! --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:26, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

== Maintenance vs administration ==

Bumping a [[User_talk:Tule-hog#Wikiversity:Administration|redirect for discussion]] concerning custodianship. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 09:50, 6 October 2024 (UTC)

== Vandalism ==

Please block [[Special:Contributions/76.121.217.240]]. --[[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 03:09, 24 November 2024 (UTC)

:Not a local sysop here but {{done}}. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 03:18, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:: {{comment}} Page deleted. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:21, 24 November 2024 (UTC)
:::Hi it's me again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/216.186.51.108]] &amp;mdash; @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:54, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
::::{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:58, 2 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::Hello. Again and again. Please block [[Special:Contributions/152.22.75.23]]. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:48, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
::::::Already done by Aramil. I think Wikiversity should take action against proxies. I suspect that these IPs are proxies and belong to the same person. [[User:Tres Libras|Tres Libras]] ([[User talk:Tres Libras|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tres Libras|contribs]]) 19:52, 3 December 2024 (UTC)
:::::::Possibly {{ping|Mu301}} has some experience dealing with proxies? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:58, 4 December 2024 (UTC)

== Import of aiCAMstir ==

[[File:'aiCAMstir' icon, © Stephan Kallee, AluStir, CC-BY-SA 4.0.png|thumb|aiCAMstir]]
The '''aiCAMstir''' project is a non-commercial collaborative project on using Artificial Intelligence in Welding. We want to create a mirror of the www_aicamstir_com web site, before this will be taken down. We do not want to add the links to the project partners but include references to published papers. However, the software settings seems to restrict the use of web links, and recommended to get in touch with an admin (By the way, I am an [[Commons:Category:'aiCAMstir'|experienced Wikimedia user]]). Do you want to allow me, to insert weblinks into references? [[User:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;]] ([[User talk:&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#39;aiCAMstir&amp;#39;|contribs]]) 11:27, 1 February 2025 (UTC)

== Block of MarsSterlingTurner ==
(Deleted and reposted to [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Block_of_MarsSterlingTurner]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:42, 10 April 2025 (UTC))

== Edit warring by [[User:Harold Foppele]] ==

{{user|Harold Foppele}} is edit warring at [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?]] (wikidebate) to add some long AI-generated text with broken wikisyntax and insists on my talk page they don't need to address my 4 specific reasons for the removal ([[Special:Diff/2784967]]) such as the broken wikisyntax. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 14:51, 13 January 2026 (UTC)

:You do not revert an editors contribution. 
:You done that before, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Prototyperspective&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10| See here] I do not have to address your 4 reasons, that is where a discussion/talk page is for. What Wikidebate Is Not: Explicitly, it's not a platform to defend preferred points of view (similar to WP:NOTSOAPBOX or WP:NOTFORUM). Focus on gathering all sides neutrally, not advocacy. This is not a discussion. Removing edits that you do not like in a debat is not done [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:41, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
:I've moved the LLM-generated text to [[Is LGBTQIA+ being forced on society?/Response from an LLM]]. The contribution breaks the wikisyntax and doesn't follow the applied format as the other arguments. Perhaps for the resource, a subpage with an input from an AI (which afaik tries its best to maintain a NPOV) could be useful. I'd advise [[User:Harold Foppele]] to provide a link to the conversation on said subpage. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:18, 13 January 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks, I think this is solved now. Hopefully, the user will interact more constructively in the future. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:40, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
:::If you talk to a user before acting that would prevent problems. Beside a curator, no one is allowed to edit users contributions. Esp. in debates. Files are even stricter there. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:05, 14 January 2026 (UTC)
::::That is not true. I talked to you in 1. the edit summary and 2. on my talk page where you insisted &quot;this is not a discussion&quot; and that you don't need to address my 4 reasons. People are not free to dump anything they want onto pages and then have it stay there with reverts and removals being impossible. Contentious edits like that need consensus for inclusion or the removal reasons to be addressed. Your interaction has been very nonconstructive and hopefully this is not a wider phenomenon on the site which if so would cause massive quality problems. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 11:35, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::You did mention it in the edit while deleting it. The 'contentious' comment is still there with an expansion to a subpage. It is not you who decide what is dump or not, or what is contentious, that is what custodians are for. A simple comment with a ping at the talk page or the user page would be sufficient to start a discussion and reach consensus. If no consensus is reached, the help of a custodian can be sought. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. Wikiversity lives by AGF (Assume Good Faith). So I assume that for you as well. I admire @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] for a brilliant solution. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:24, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
::::::One can remove contents and the burden is on the person who wants to add the new info to address the reasons in a comment and/or to address the reasons via a new way. Adding it to a subpage and then linking that is what you could have done, not requiring me to go here to get help. You are not the discussion leader on the subject. You aren't free to add any content to any page and have authority for it to stay there. I'll once again close my comment that your interaction has not been constructive; you did not address points or suggest or implement a solution but just insisted you don't even need to address them and just went to do edit warring. [[User:Prototyperspective|Prototyperspective]] ([[User talk:Prototyperspective|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Prototyperspective|contribs]]) 12:59, 15 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::::Indeed, you are not constructive. Just stuborn. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 14:09, 15 January 2026 (UTC)

== New curatorship request ==

I started a curatorship request at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Curatorship/Codename Noreste]]. Can a custodian place it in [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice|the site notice]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:51, 23 March 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:41, 23 March 2026 (UTC)
::Can you increment [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice id]] by one digit? If done, the site notice will appear again. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:30, 24 March 2026 (UTC)
:::A little more than a week has passed, and there is one support. Would a custodian close my request, please? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:26, 31 March 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done}} https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki%3ASitenotice_id&amp;diff=2802001&amp;oldid=2800237 —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:51, 31 March 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Call for custodians and bureaucrats]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:46, 12 May 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

Can I encourage currently active [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]] to consider putting themselves forward for [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodianship]] and/or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucrat|bureaucratship]]. We have a productive, capable group of [[Wikiversity:Staff|staff]] at the moment who should probably have more rights to better support the project and we are light on for active custodians and bureaucrats. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:34, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
: I'm willing to do so. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 11:48, 9 May 2026 (UTC)
::Awesome. Could you self-nominate at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I filed my nomination, but according to the custodianship policy, I am running for probationary custodianship, and after a period of four weeks, I will run again for permanent custodianship to determine if I have performed well and professionally. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:00, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:I'm also willing to run for bureaucratship as I imagine my activity levels should remain sufficient. I could put in a nomination within the next week or so. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:55, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::Wonderful. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:09, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
:Would also like to help! [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:25, 13 May 2026 (UTC)
::Merci beaucoup :) When you're ready, you can self-nominate for probationary custodianship at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:08, 14 May 2026 (UTC)
: Would an uninvolved bureaucrat close the following discussions? Roughly a week has passed. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:53, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
:: Ping @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]]: Two probationary custodian nominations are ready for closing if you're available. Also note that there are two bureaucrat nominations that should stay open for another week or so. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:57, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:51, 21 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: Thanks, Mike, appreciate it. 
:::: It's now been a couple of weeks for the two bureaucrat nominations, so I think they could be closed. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:10, 28 May 2026 (UTC)

:::::{{done}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:24, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodian mentors==
If you have more than 3 months experience as a custodian, please consider listing yourself as potential mentor for probationary custodians: [[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:27, 12 May 2026 (UTC)

== 2FA requirement for bureaucrats ==

Per [[Special:ListGroupRights#bureaucrat]] and per [[phab:T423120|T423120]], you'll notice that two-factor authentication is required to use bureaucrat permissions (and will soon be enforced). Our existing bureaucrats should take a moment to verify and utilize two-factor authentication. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:31, 27 May 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for the reminder. Bureaucrats should have received emails. I switched it on recently. Relatively painless and hasn't disrupted workflow, so seems to be well implemented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:13, 28 May 2026 (UTC)
::Yes, I turned this on. I would highly recommend that anyone with rights (custodians, curators, etc.) enable this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:42, 30 May 2026 (UTC)

== Redundant user rights ==

I recently changed the user rights for community approved custodians and bureaucrats per consensus. I just realized that I removed curator for Atcovi when adding 'crat thinking that curator was redundant. I then realized that I haven't been consistent about removing old bits. I don't have a strong opinion on this. Just asking. Should curator rights be removed when adding custodian or 'crat? I've never been a curator and don't currently have that bit set. Some accounts still have curator with other rights and others (like mine) don't. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:00, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:If someone steps down as bureaucrat but wants to remain a custodian/curator, then having those rights as well ensures that they won't be accidentally removed. This exact scenario just happened on another wiki where I am a bureaucrat. It can't hurt to have the redundant ones, if you ask me. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:02, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Currently]], all the 'crats have custodian; Koavf additionally has curator, which none of the other 'crat accounts have. PieWriter, MathXplore, and Koavf are the only custodians to also have curator. [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&amp;group=sysop&amp;wpsubmit=&amp;wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&amp;limit=50] I propose that we should either a) add curator to all 'crats and custodians or b) remove the redundant bit from all accounts. I don't have a preference, I'm just advocating for consistency and clarity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:49, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
::: I lean more on removing the curator bit from all custodians and bureaucrats, as custodians themselves have most, if not all curator user rights, followed by some additional user rights. I planned to remove the curator bit from custodians and to leave a note here about my action(s) for review, until I saw this message. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:54, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:::: I'm inclined to follow the [[w:Principle of least privilege]] and remove redundant bits. A custodian or 'crat doesn't need curator. Granting these bits later should be no big deal. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:13, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Agree with principles of simplicity and consistency. Plus that agreed practice should be documented. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:18, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

{{ping|Atcovi|PieWriter|MathXplore|Koavf}} Pinging contributors who may have an interest in discussion. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

:I'm okay with whatever. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:19, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: Removing the curator is OK. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:33, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
:Seems fine to me [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 02:37, 31 May 2026 (UTC)
: {{done}} for all three above. Atcovi already removed his own curator rights as it was redundant to custodian rights. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:59, 31 May 2026 (UTC)

== Deleting subpages ==

What script do you suggest for deleting a large number of subpages? I found:
* [[Wikipedia:User:Splarka/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
* [[Wikisource:User:George Orwell III/ajaxbatchdelete.js]]
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:31, 5 June 2026 (UTC)

:I use MassDelete. You can find a copy at [[User:Koavf/common.js]] and enable it at [[Special:MassDelete]] once you have added it to your JS page(s). ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:00, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
: I use MassDelete by DreamRimmer, see [[m:User:DreamRimmer/MassDelete.js]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:14, 5 June 2026 (UTC)
:As far as I dont know MassDelete, I would try to do it with [[special:nuke]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
::Nuke expires, so if a page was created more than &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; days ago, then Nuke won't catch it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:15, 8 June 2026 (UTC)

== Guy vandegrift rights change ==

{{Ping|Maintenance script}} I'm curious about this [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&amp;logid=3555817 rights change for Guy vandegrift] which removed Bureaucrat status. Guy hasn't edited for 6 months, but I thought the [[meta:Admin activity review|Wikimedia inactivity policy was for 2 years]]. Plus, I don't think see any communication with [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] prior to the rights change. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:59, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
: It's not a user, it's actually a maintenance script. Guy vandegrift's bureaucrat permission was removed presumably because they did not enable 2FA. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:06, 12 June 2026 (UTC)
:: OK, yes, thankyou, that makes sense. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:21, 12 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Multilingual turn</title>
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{{Education}}
== Starting activity ==

* Map out your linguistic background on a timeline, noting when you learnt or came across each language or variety you know.
* From there, identify which of the languages or varieties listed you use in your daily life (to a greater or lesser extent) and specify the contexts in which you use them (private, public, professional, digital, cultural, religious…). This will give you your current ''[[Dominant language constellation]]'' (DLC).
* Now think about the following questions: 
** Is there one (or more) language or variety that clearly dominates?
** Are there contexts where you switch between languages or varieties, or mix them together? 
** Compare your current DLC with your DLC from an earlier point in time. What has changed? Are there any languages/varieties that you once learned but hardly ever use or no longer use at all? 
* Given all these formalised elements, what is your view (or views) of your plurilingualism?

== Objectives ==
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

* recognise that there are different views on plurilingualism;
* understand the different stages of the multilingual turn;
* understand the implications that this shift towards multilingualism has on language teaching and learning. 

== Keywords ==
monolingualism – plurilingualism – multilingualism – approaches to plurilingualism

== Introduction ==
The multilingual turn should be seen as a major development in the way languages and their uses have been viewed since the 1980s. The term ‘turn’ (May, 2013) is used in the sense that plurilingual approaches to teaching have moved away from a compartmentalised, static view of languages – which was previously emphasised – towards a more dynamic, integrated and individualised conception of the linguistic and cultural diversity of individuals and communities.

== History ==
For a long time, in language teaching theory underpinned by research, monolingualism (with a dominant language) was contrasted with bilingualism (conceived as perfect and symmetrical mastery of two languages, for example, as described by Bloomfield, 1993, Penfield &amp; Roberts, 1959, and the code-switching theory) or multilingualism (the presence of several languages within a society or in an individual’s practice, but in a compartmentalised manner). The multilingual turn, which reached its peak in the 2010s, marked a transition from approaches emphasising the need to isolate languages for learning (monolingual immersion was the norm) to the development of a more open, inclusive perspective that takes into account the plurality – particularly the linguistic diversity – of learners. The ideal of the native speaker has thus been set aside as a central element of various teaching approaches and methods (the direct method, the audio-oral method, etc.), in favour of a greater focus on the plurilingual learner. We are therefore at a turning point that forms part of a critical perspective on language teaching and learning.

In support of the concept of plurilingual and inter/transcultural competence developed notably under the auspices of the Council of Europe through the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001), the multilingual turn has become institutionalised, initially nourished by the work of pioneers such as Grosjean (1982, 1993) and Lüdi &amp; Py (1986). As Macaire (2025, p. 315) points out, « le tournant plurilingue se décline selon une triple orientation en éducation. La première explore une compétence unifiante ; la deuxième en discute les enjeux pour l’éducation ; la troisième s’intéresse à l’apprenant-sujet dans l’écologie des diversités ».  – “The shift towards multilingualism takes three distinct forms in education. The first explores a unifying competency; the second examines the implications for education; the third focuses on the individual learner within the context of diversity.” [own translation]

== Conceptualisation of the multilingual turn ==
This turning point marks a conceptual shift centred on four key dimensions, which completely transform the way in which we view multilingualism and the associated multiculturalism.

'''An integrated view of languages''': The multilingual turn recognises that an individual’s languages and language varieties are not compartmentalised, but form a single, evolving repertoire from which they draw depending on context and needs. We are moving towards a unifying approach to language competencies.

'''Dynamic dimension''': Languages are used in a complementary manner, alternately, and sometimes mixed together depending on the social, educational or family contexts, or on the needs of speakers in various areas of use (see the concept of multiliteracy; Cook, 1991).

'''Recognition of partial language competence''': One of the hallmarks of the shift towards plurilingualism lies in the recognition of all language competencies, whether partial or receptive, moving away from a view of plurilingualism that aims to achieve ‘native’ proficiency in every language. Being plurilingual should no longer be equated with being equally competent in each language one knows or uses.

'''Relationship with cultural diversity''': Another dimension is involved, namely the cultural dimension, through the recognition of multiple cultural identities and the ability to navigate between different cultures. The multicultural dimension is valued.

== Educational and social implications ==
'''A conceptual paradigm shift''': As the term suggests, the multilingual turn represents a paradigm shift, in the sense that it offers a new perspective on linguistic and cultural diversity. We are thus moving away from viewing multilingualism as an obstacle towards recognising it as a source of richness and an asset for learning languages and citizenship. This conceptual shift inevitably leads to changes in educational practices, such as recognising the value of learners' linguistic repertoires and developing innovative teaching methods.

'''Valuing linguistic repertoires''': The multilingual turn is prompting schools and society to recognise and actively foster learners’ linguistic repertoires, enabling learners  to draw on and develop them – especially those from plurilingual families, including migrant backgrounds. This includes activities built around [[Language biography and identity texts|language biographies]] (Molinié, 2006; Auger, 2024), which contribute to this promotion.

'''Innovative teaching approaches''': Taking this into account makes it necessary to implement new teaching approaches, particularly within the framework of [[Pluralistic approach|pluralistic approaches]] (Integrated didactic approach to languages, Awakening to languages, intercomprehension, and the Intercultural approach). Teaching approaches based on  [[translanguaging]] (García &amp; Lin, 2017) are also fully part of this shift. The first four approaches can incorporate students’ home languages or other languages they know – whether learnt as foreign or second languages, or acquired in other ways – in order to build on them,  for example by comparing languages, and to promote practices aligned with [[language inclusion]] (Auger, 2020).

'''Institutional recognition''': Despite this shift and the arguments associated with it, the promotion of plurilingualism sometimes struggles to take shape within school systems, for various reasons. Consequently, the idea of a pluralistic society is often challenged by political and/or individual ideologies, as well as the strongly held, identity-based views of certain governments. The value placed on [[English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)|English as a lingua franca]] may also contribute to this difficulty in recognition. Even when states are willing to promote this diversity, implementation is complex, due to a lack of teacher training and suitable educational resources and tools.

== Take-home messages ==
The multilingual turn refers to a shift from an additive, compartmentalised, and static view of languages to a dynamic, integrated and value-affirming conception of individuals’ and societies’ linguistic and cultural diversity. It invites us to rethink education, citizenship, and language policies in an era of globalisation and mobility. The multilingual turn also challenges the traditional notions of mother tongue/first language and foreign language, encouraging us to focus more on linguistic repertoires and less on individual languages.

== Self-assessment ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The multilingual turn holds that:}
- plurilingualism is a “handicap” for language learning;
- plurilingualism is an obstacle to the development of citizenship;
- plurilingualism is positive only if each language is mastered equally;
+ plurilingualism is an asset for language learning.

{From the perspective of pedagogical practices in language learning, following the multilingual turn, it is considered:} 
- counterproductive to emphasize learners’ home languages ;
+ necessary to build on the languages learners already know; 
- that a foreign language should only be learnt through full immersion;
+ inadvisable to rely on translation or on simply linking to other languages.

{With the multilingual turn, in the context of language teaching and learning, we have moved:}
- from taking learners’ languages into account to focusing solely on the target language;
+ from a compartmentalised view of languages to a unified view;
- from the necessary consideration of learners’ languages to a purely immersive target-language approach; 
- from a holistic view of languages to a compartmentalised one.

{To implement the educational guidelines resulting from the multilingual turn, it is necessary} 
- that all teachers are familiar with all their students’ languages;
+ that learners of the same origin be grouped in the same classes; 
- that teachers be trained to implement pluralistic approaches; 
- that teachers use AI-based automatic translators. 
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Resources to go further ==

* Conteh, J., &amp; Meier, G, (Eds.) (2014). ''The multilingual turn in language education: Opportunities and challenges''. Multilingual Matters.
* Cook, V. J. (1991). The poverty-of-the-stimulus argument and multi-competence. ''Second Language Research'', ''7''(2), 103–17.
* Finex, N., &amp; Makalela, L. (2021). ''Decolonising multilingualism in Africa: Recentering silenced voices from the global south''. Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/NDHLOV3354 
* Kramsch, C. (2022). Afterword: The multilingual turn in language teacher education. ''Language and Education'', ''36''(5), 467–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2022.2118542   

== Bibliography ==
Auger, N. (2020). Enseigner à des élèves plurilingues: vers une didactique inclusive. In C. Mendonça-Dias, B. Azaoui, &amp; F. Chnane-Davin (Eds.), ''Allophonie. Inclusion et langues des enfants migrants à l’école'' (pp. 171–183). Éditions Lambert-Lucas.

Auger, N. (2024). ''Le diamant langagier''. French, English subtitles: (1h47) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=artl-xcTDJc    

Bloomfield, L. (1933). ''Language''. Holt.

Coste, D., Moore, D., &amp; Zarate, G. (1997, 2009). ''Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle, Vers un Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour l'enseignement et l'apprentissage des langues vivantes: études préparatoires.'' Conseil de l’Europe, Division des politiques linguistiques. https://rm.coe.int/168069d29c 

Council of Europe (Ed.). (2001). ''Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment''. Council of Europe Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/16802fc1bf

García, O., &amp; Lin, A.M.Y. (2017). Translanguaging in bilingual education. In O. García, A.M.Y. Lin., &amp; S. May (Ed.). ''Bilingual and multilingual education''. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1_9 

Grosjean, F (1982). ''Life with two Languages: An introduction to bilingualism''. Harvard University Press.

Grosjean, F. (1993). Le bilinguisme et le biculturalisme. Essai de définition. ''Travaux neuchâtelois de linguistique'', (19), 13–41. https://doi.org/10.26034/tranel.1993.2342

Lüdi, G., &amp; Py, B. (2003). ''Être bilingue'' (3rd revised edition). Lang.

Lüdi, G., &amp; Py, B. (2009). To be or not to be... a plurilingual speaker. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', ''6''(2), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710902846715

Macaire, D. (2025). Le tournant plurilingue. In C. Ollivier &amp; S. Melo-Pfeifer (Eds.), ''Encyclopédie de l'éducation plurilingue'' (pp. 305–307).  Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/b23455  

May, S. (2013). ''The multilingual turn : Implications for SLA, TESOL, and bilingual education.'' Taylor &amp; Francis Group.

Meier, G. S. (2017).  The multilingual turn as a critical movement in education: assumptions, challenges and a need for reflection. ''Applied Linguistics Review'', ''8''(1), 131–161. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2016-2010

Melo-Pfeifer, S. (2018). The multilingual turn in foreign language education. Facts and fallacies. In A. Bonnet &amp; P. Siemund (Eds.), ''Foreign language education in multilingual classrooms'' (pp. 191–210). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.7

Molinié, M. (2006). Une approche biographique des trajectoires linguistiques et culturelles. In M. Molinié (Ed.), Biographie ''langagière et apprentissage plurilingue. Le français dans le monde. Recherches et applications, 39'', 8–11. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01224908/document

Montagne-Macaire, D. (2008). D’une didactique des langues à une didactique des plurilinguismes ? Réflexions pour la recherche. ''Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures'', ''5''(1), 2–40. https://doi.org/10.4000/rdlc.6245 

Moore, D., &amp; Gajo, L. (2009). Introduction. French voices on plurilingualism and pluriculturalism: Significance and perspectives. ''International Journal of Multilingualism'', ''6''(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710902846707

Penfield, W., &amp; Roberts, L. (1959). ''Speech and brain mechanisms''. Princeton University Press.

==Credits==
This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : 

* Thierry Gaillat (Université de La Réunion)

[[Portal: Plurilingual education]]</text>
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    <title>User:Sabbier</title>
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      <text bytes="22659" sha1="2yt3vd6lfyqzfmh44jfp2hyla4awlcl" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality and Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus juicer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson</text>
      <sha1>2yt3vd6lfyqzfmh44jfp2hyla4awlcl</sha1>
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      <text bytes="26009" sha1="73rq1nbjej48mhutpvs00xj2iw1ai92" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left cut is unsuitable for juicing, the right cut is perfect.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.</text>
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      <text bytes="26673" sha1="s2m6riz68y3l86ci7lbp57k5h7lj72y" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Cutting-board-kitchen-prepping-food.webp|thumb|Cutting food with paring knife]]
''A note on cutting: Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger knife can be use but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs.'' 

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left lengthwise cut and unsuitable for juicing, the right widthwise cut is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.

==== Cutting Orange Half-moons ====

# Cut the orange in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the orange should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.</text>
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      <text bytes="29779" sha1="au6iwa29o43hgppsesp5xjhqlg92c17" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Cutting-board-kitchen-prepping-food.webp|thumb|Cutting with paring knife and curled fingers|left]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left lengthwise cut and unsuitable for juicing, the right widthwise cut is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.</text>
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      <text bytes="31817" sha1="f6gny19icxt6r3990px2r7116nuls5p" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Cutting-board-kitchen-prepping-food.webp|thumb|Cutting with paring knife and curled fingers|left]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left lengthwise cut and unsuitable for juicing, the right widthwise cut is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

== Glassware ==

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===

=== Cosmopolitan ===
Coup or Martini

Ingredients

1.5oz Citron Vodka

.75oz fresh lime juice

.75oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

.75oz cranberry juice cocktail

Garnish: lemon twist

Shake all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 

=== Margarita ===

=== Paloma ===

=== Whiskey Sour ===

=== Moscow Mule ===

=== Spritz ===

=== Mojito ===

=== Daiquiri ===

=== French 75 ===

=== Gimlet ===

=== Manhattan ===

=== Mai Tai ===

=== Martini ===

=== Espresso Martini ===

=== Pina Colada ===

=== Bloody Mary ===

=== Negroni ===

=== Old Fashioned ===

=== Tom Collins ===
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      <text bytes="33381" sha1="hn7efcy5k700rxnknojah2saolmwh0v" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Cutting-board-kitchen-prepping-food.webp|thumb|Cutting with paring knife and curled fingers|left]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left lengthwise cut and unsuitable for juicing, the right widthwise cut is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

== Glassware ==

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===

= Cosmopolitan =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
= Margarita =


=== Paloma ===

=== Whiskey Sour ===

= Moscow Mule =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===

= Mojito =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

= Daiquiri =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===

=== Gimlet ===

=== Manhattan ===

=== Mai Tai ===

=== Martini ===

=== Espresso Martini ===

=== Pina Colada ===

= Bloody Mary =
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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= Negroni =
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'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===

=== Tom Collins ===</text>
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      <text bytes="36891" sha1="9nfb1r03u5xktyvh40m07sh2t5e6bu2" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Cutting-board-kitchen-prepping-food.webp|thumb|Cutting with paring knife and curled fingers|left]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left lengthwise cut and unsuitable for juicing, the right widthwise cut is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

== Glassware ==

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

= Highball =
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Gingerale, and Scotch and Soda.

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'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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= Cosmopolitan =
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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= Margarita =
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'''Glass:''' Lowball

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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= Paloma =
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'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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= Whiskey Sour =
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'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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= Moscow Mule =
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'''Glass:''' Mule Mug

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===

= Mojito =
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'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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= Daiquiri =
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'''Glass:''' Coupe

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===

=== Gimlet ===

= Manhattan =
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'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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= Mai Tai =
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'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===

= Pina Colada =
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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= Bloody Mary =
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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= Negroni =
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'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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= Old Fashioned =
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'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
= Martini =
These are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over.
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'''Glass:''' Martini

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Martini (patron preference)

Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass.
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      <text bytes="39882" sha1="3csehw2m5951addwxgetafhjwo3cyfp" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Cutting-board-kitchen-prepping-food.webp|thumb|Cutting with paring knife and curled fingers|left]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left lengthwise cut and unsuitable for juicing, the right widthwise cut is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

== Glassware ==

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

= Highball =
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Gingerale, and Scotch and Soda.

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'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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= Cosmopolitan =
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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= Margarita =
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'''Glass:''' Lowball

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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= Paloma =
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'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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= Whiskey Sour =
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'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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= Moscow Mule =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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= Spritz =
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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= Mojito =
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'''Glass:''' Highball

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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= Daiquiri =
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'''Glass:''' Coupe

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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= French 75 =
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'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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= Gimlet =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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= Manhattan =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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= Mai Tai =
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'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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= Pina Colada =
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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= Bloody Mary =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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= Negroni =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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= Old Fashioned =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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= Tom Collins =
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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= Martini =
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, but the Classic Martini has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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= Espresso Martini =
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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  <page>
    <title>Deaf and hard of hearing people and mulitlingual education</title>
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{{Education}}{{Course}}
== Starting activity ==
Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. 

For each image, answer briefly these sentences:

* What kind of communication does this image show?
* What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…)
* Who is communicating and how do they understand each other?
* What helps make the message clear, even without sound?
* In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality).

Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection.

== Keywords ==
multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning 

== Objectives ==
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

* Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education, especially for deaf and hard of hearing learners.
* Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts.
* Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf and hard of hearing (audiological condition).
* Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. 
* Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion.
* Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes.

== Table of contents ==

# Introduction
# Definitions and discussion of the definitions
# Theoretical overview
# Research Projects
# Activities: get inspired
# Take-home messages
# Self-assessment
# Resources to go further
# Bibliography

== 1. Introduction ==
Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. 

The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing.

This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages.
== 2. Theoretical overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Term
!Focus
!Typical Communication Mode
!Cultural Aspect
|-
|Deaf (capital D)
|Cultural and linguistic identity
|Sign language
|Member of Deaf community
|-
|deaf (lowercase d)
|General term
|May vary
|Not necessarily
|-
|Hard of Hearing
|Medical / audiological condition Partial hearing loss
|Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs
|Not necessarily
|}
When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.”

This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.

* Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language).
* Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose.
* Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time).

Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” Bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic      means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically.

Concerning deaf and hard-of-hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. 

Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/daf and hard-of-hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language.

Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, values deaf culture, and to promote an inclusive learning environment. 

Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs.

Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language.

Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students.

== 3. Research Projects ==
These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson     .

=== ''PRO-Sign'' ===
https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign

''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides &quot;Can Do&quot; descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including &quot;plus levels&quot; (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site.

=== ''SpreadTheSign'' ===
https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/

SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication.

=== ''LangSkills II'' ===
https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf

The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education.

=== ''The SigHub Project'' ===
https://thesignhub.eu/

The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project” in the upper right corner. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages.

=== ''LIS-A project'' ===
''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis''

This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs.

== 4. Activities: get inspired ==
To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently.

'''Materials Needed:'''

* Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences
* Notebook or digital document for writing
* Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign)

'''Activity Steps:'''

'''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)'''

# Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating).
# Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/.
# Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times.
# Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review.

'''Building Sentences''' 

# Pick one picture card or image.
# Create a simple sentence using that image 
# Break the sentence into individual words and review:
#* Vocabulary meaning
#* Word order and sentence structure
# Practice:
#* Sign the sentence
#* Speak the sentence aloud
#* Write the sentence in your notebook
# Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images.

'''Reflection &amp; Wrap-Up''' 

# Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity.
# Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned.
# Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story.

Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps:

Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.).

Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell

Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words.

Translate in a natural Sign Language

Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs).

Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step.

== 5. Take home messages ==
* Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal.
* Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion.
* Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture.
* Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies.
* Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment.
* Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background.

== 6. Self-assessment ==

=== Multiple choice quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?}
-a) Using two spoken languages
+b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) 
-c) Learning languages sequentially

{The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:}
-a) A medical condition
+b) A cultural-linguistic identity
-c) A level of hearing loss

{The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:}
-a) Focus exclusively on oral language
+b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities
-c) Replace sign language with written communication
&lt;/quiz&gt;
=== Open reflection ===

* How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners?
* Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment?

== 7. Resources to go further ==

* Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.
* Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.
* European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 
* Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982.
* World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021

== 8. Bibliography ==
Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli.

Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.

Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.

Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang.

European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf

Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. 

Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex 

Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. 

Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press 

Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., &amp; Pettenati, P. (2012). &quot;Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico&quot;. RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670.

Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., &amp; Pasqualetti, P. (2019). &quot;From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain&quot;. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750.

Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 

Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. 

Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982.

Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore

Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins

Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022.

World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021.

== Credits ==
This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :
* Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) 
* Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma)</text>
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== Starting activity ==
Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. 

For each image, answer briefly these sentences:

* What kind of communication does this image show?
* What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…)
* Who is communicating and how do they understand each other?
* What helps make the message clear, even without sound?
* In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality).

Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection.

== Keywords ==
multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning 

== Objectives ==
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

* Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education, especially for deaf and hard of hearing learners.
* Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts.
* Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf and hard of hearing (audiological condition).
* Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. 
* Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion.
* Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes.

== Table of contents ==

# Introduction
# Definitions and discussion of the definitions
# Theoretical overview
# Research Projects
# Activities: get inspired
# Take-home messages
# Self-assessment
# Resources to go further
# Bibliography

== 1. Introduction ==
Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. 

The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing.

This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages.
== 2. Theoretical overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Term
!Focus
!Typical Communication Mode
!Cultural Aspect
|-
|Deaf (capital D)
|Cultural and linguistic identity
|Sign language
|Member of Deaf community
|-
|deaf (lowercase d)
|General term
|May vary
|Not necessarily
|-
|Hard of Hearing
|Medical / audiological condition; Partial hearing loss
|Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs
|Not necessarily
|}
When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.”

This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.

* Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language).
* Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose.
* Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time).

Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” As introduced above, bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically.

Concerning deaf and hard of hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. 

Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/deaf and hard of hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language.

Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf and hard of hearing individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, value deaf culture, and promote an inclusive learning environment. 

Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs.

Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language.

Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students.

== 3. Research Projects ==
These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson     .

=== ''PRO-Sign'' ===
https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign

''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides &quot;Can Do&quot; descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including &quot;plus levels&quot; (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site.

=== ''SpreadTheSign'' ===
https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/

SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication.

=== ''LangSkills II'' ===
https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf

The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education.

=== ''The SigHub Project'' ===
https://thesignhub.eu/

The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project” in the upper right corner. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages.

=== ''LIS-A project'' ===
''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis''

This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs.

== 4. Activities: get inspired ==
To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently.

'''Materials Needed:'''

* Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences
* Notebook or digital document for writing
* Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign)

'''Activity Steps:'''

'''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)'''

# Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating).
# Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/.
# Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times.
# Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review.

'''Building Sentences''' 

# Pick one picture card or image.
# Create a simple sentence using that image 
# Break the sentence into individual words and review:
#* Vocabulary meaning
#* Word order and sentence structure
# Practice:
#* Sign the sentence
#* Speak the sentence aloud
#* Write the sentence in your notebook
# Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images.

'''Reflection &amp; Wrap-Up''' 

# Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity.
# Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned.
# Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story.

Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps:

Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.).

Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell

Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words.

Translate in a natural Sign Language

Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs).

Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step.

== 5. Take home messages ==
* Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal.
* Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion.
* Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture.
* Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies.
* Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment.
* Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background.

== 6. Self-assessment ==

=== Multiple choice quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?}
-a) Using two spoken languages
+b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) 
-c) Learning languages sequentially

{The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:}
-a) A medical condition
+b) A cultural-linguistic identity
-c) A level of hearing loss

{The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:}
-a) Focus exclusively on oral language
+b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities
-c) Replace sign language with written communication
&lt;/quiz&gt;
=== Open reflection ===

* How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners?
* Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment?

== 7. Resources to go further ==

* Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.
* Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.
* European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 
* Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982.
* World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021

== 8. Bibliography ==
Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli.

Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.

Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.

Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang.

European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf

Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. 

Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex 

Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. 

Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press 

Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., &amp; Pettenati, P. (2012). &quot;Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico&quot;. RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670.

Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., &amp; Pasqualetti, P. (2019). &quot;From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain&quot;. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750.

Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 

Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. 

Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982.

Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore

Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins

Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022.

World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021.

== Credits ==
This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :
* Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) 
* Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma)</text>
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== Starting activity ==
Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. 

For each image, answer briefly these sentences:

* What kind of communication does this image show?
* What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…)
* Who is communicating and how do they understand each other?
* What helps make the message clear, even without sound?
* In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality).

Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection.

== Keywords ==
multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning 

== Objectives ==
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

* Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education, especially for deaf and hard of hearing learners.
* Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts.
* Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf and hard of hearing (audiological condition).
* Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. 
* Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion.
* Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes.

== Table of contents ==

# Introduction
# Definitions and discussion of the definitions
# Theoretical overview
# Research Projects
# Activities: get inspired
# Take-home messages
# Self-assessment
# Resources to go further
# Bibliography

== 1. Introduction ==
Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. 

The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing.

This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages.
== 2. Theoretical overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Term
!Focus
!Typical Communication Mode
!Cultural Aspect
|-
|Deaf (capital D)
|Cultural and linguistic identity
|Sign language
|Member of Deaf community
|-
|deaf (lowercase d)
|General term
|May vary
|Not necessarily
|-
|Hard of Hearing
|Medical / audiological condition; Partial hearing loss
|Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs
|Not necessarily
|}
When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.”

This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.

* Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language).
* Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose.
* Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time).

Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” As introduced above, bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically.

Concerning deaf and hard of hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. 

Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/deaf and hard of hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language.

Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf and hard of hearing individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, value deaf culture, and promote an inclusive learning environment. 

Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs.

Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language.

Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students.

== 3. Research Projects ==
These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson.

=== ''PRO-Sign'' ===
https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign

''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides &quot;Can Do&quot; descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including &quot;plus levels&quot; (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site.

=== ''SpreadTheSign'' ===
https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/

SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication.

=== ''LangSkills II'' ===
https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf

The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education.

=== ''The SigHub Project'' ===
https://thesignhub.eu/

The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project”. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages.

=== ''LIS-A project'' ===
''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis''

This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project's main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs.

== 4. Activities: get inspired ==
To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently.

'''Materials Needed:'''

* Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences
* Notebook or digital document for writing
* Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign)

'''Activity Steps:'''

'''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)'''

# Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating).
# Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/.
# Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times.
# Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review.

'''Building Sentences''' 

# Pick one picture card or image.
# Create a simple sentence using that image 
# Break the sentence into individual words and review:
#* Vocabulary meaning
#* Word order and sentence structure
# Practice:
#* Sign the sentence
#* Speak the sentence aloud
#* Write the sentence in your notebook
# Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images.

'''Reflection &amp; Wrap-Up''' 

# Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity.
# Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned.
# Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story.

Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps:

Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.).

Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell

Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words.

Translate in a natural Sign Language

Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs).

Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step.

== 5. Take home messages ==
* Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal.
* Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion.
* Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture.
* Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies.
* Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment.
* Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background.

== 6. Self-assessment ==

=== Multiple choice quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?}
-a) Using two spoken languages
+b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) 
-c) Learning languages sequentially

{The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:}
-a) A medical condition
+b) A cultural-linguistic identity
-c) A level of hearing loss

{The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:}
-a) Focus exclusively on oral language
+b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities
-c) Replace sign language with written communication
&lt;/quiz&gt;
=== Open reflection ===

* How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners?
* Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment?

== 7. Resources to go further ==

* Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.
* Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.
* European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 
* Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982.
* World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021

== 8. Bibliography ==
Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli.

Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.

Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.

Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang.

European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf

Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. 

Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex 

Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. 

Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press 

Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., &amp; Pettenati, P. (2012). &quot;Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico&quot;. RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670.

Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., &amp; Pasqualetti, P. (2019). &quot;From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain&quot;. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750.

Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 

Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. 

Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982.

Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore

Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins

Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022.

World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021.

== Credits ==
This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :
* Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) 
* Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma)</text>
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== Starting activity ==
Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. 

For each image, answer briefly these sentences:

* What kind of communication does this image show?
* What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…)
* Who is communicating and how do they understand each other?
* What helps make the message clear, even without sound?
* In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality).

Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection.

== Keywords ==
multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning 

== Objectives ==
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

* Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education, especially for deaf and hard of hearing learners.
* Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts.
* Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf and hard of hearing (audiological condition).
* Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. 
* Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion.
* Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes.

== Table of contents ==

# Introduction
# Definitions and discussion of the definitions
# Theoretical overview
# Research Projects
# Activities: get inspired
# Take-home messages
# Self-assessment
# Resources to go further
# Bibliography

== 1. Introduction ==
Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. 

The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing.

This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages.
== 2. Theoretical overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Term
!Focus
!Typical Communication Mode
!Cultural Aspect
|-
|Deaf (capital D)
|Cultural and linguistic identity
|Sign language
|Member of Deaf community
|-
|deaf (lowercase d)
|General term
|May vary
|Not necessarily
|-
|Hard of Hearing
|Medical / audiological condition; Partial hearing loss
|Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs
|Not necessarily
|}
When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.”

This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.

* Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language).
* Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose.
* Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time).

Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” As introduced above, bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically.

Concerning deaf and hard of hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. 

Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/deaf and hard of hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language.

Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf and hard of hearing individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, value deaf culture, and promote an inclusive learning environment. 

Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs.

Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language.

Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students.

== 3. Research Projects ==
These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson.

=== ''PRO-Sign'' ===
https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign

''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides &quot;Can Do&quot; descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including &quot;plus levels&quot; (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site.

=== ''SpreadTheSign'' ===
https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/

SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication.

=== ''LangSkills II'' ===
https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf

The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education.

=== ''The SigHub Project'' ===
https://thesignhub.eu/

The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project”. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages.

=== ''LIS-A project'' ===
''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis''

This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project's main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs.

== 4. Activities: get inspired ==
To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently.

'''Materials Needed:'''

* Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences
* Notebook or digital document for writing
* Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign)

'''Activity Steps:'''

'''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)'''

# Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating).
# Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/.
# Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times.
# Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review.

'''Building Sentences''' 

# Pick one picture card or image.
# Create a simple sentence using that image 
# Break the sentence into individual words and review:
#* Vocabulary meaning
#* Word order and sentence structure
# Practice:
#* Sign the sentence
#* Speak the sentence aloud
#* Write the sentence in your notebook
# Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images.

'''Reflection &amp; Wrap-Up''' 

# Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity.
# Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned.
# Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story.

Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps. This is exemplified in the following for Italian and Italian Sign Language (LIS), but can be adapted to any other language and sign language:

Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.).

Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell

Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words.

Translate in a natural Sign Language

Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs).

Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step.

== 5. Take home messages ==
* Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal.
* Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion.
* Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture.
* Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies.
* Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment.
* Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background.

== 6. Self-assessment ==

=== Multiple choice quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?}
-a) Using two spoken languages
+b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) 
-c) Learning languages sequentially

{The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:}
-a) A medical condition
+b) A cultural-linguistic identity
-c) A level of hearing loss

{The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:}
-a) Focus exclusively on oral language
+b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities
-c) Replace sign language with written communication
&lt;/quiz&gt;
=== Open reflection ===

* How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners?
* Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment?

== 7. Resources to go further ==

* Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.
* Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.
* European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 
* Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982.
* World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021

== 8. Bibliography ==
Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli.

Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.

Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.

Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang.

European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf

Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. 

Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex 

Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. 

Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press 

Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., &amp; Pettenati, P. (2012). &quot;Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico&quot;. RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670.

Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., &amp; Pasqualetti, P. (2019). &quot;From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain&quot;. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750.

Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 

Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. 

Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982.

Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore

Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins

Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022.

World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021.

== Credits ==
This resource has been added by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) :
* Maria Roccaforte (Sapienza Università di Roma) 
* Martina Corrazza (Sapienza Università di Roma)</text>
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{{Education}}{{Course}}
== Starting activity ==
Select three different images that, for you, represent communication. 

For each image, answer briefly these sentences:

* What kind of communication does this image show?
* What languages or codes are being used? (spoken, written, signed, visual…)
* Who is communicating and how do they understand each other?
* What helps make the message clear, even without sound?
* In what ways do you think deaf and hard-of-hearing learners experience communication differently from hearing learners? Try to consider both challenges and strengths (e.g., visual learning, bilingualism, multimodality).

Optional (for Sign language users): Record a short Sign language video (30 seconds) where you introduce one of your chosen images and sign the main idea of your reflection.

== Keywords ==
multilingual, deaf, hard of hearing, sign languages, spoken languages, education, foreign languages teaching and learning 

== Objectives ==
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

* Explain the main goals and principles of multilingual education, especially for deaf and hard of hearing learners.
* Distinguish between different communication modalities (spoken, written, signed, visual) and describe how they interact in bimodal and bilingual contexts.
* Identify the differences between Deaf (cultural-linguistic identity) and deaf and hard of hearing (audiological condition).
* Recognize the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural factors influencing language learning among deaf and hard of hearing students. 
* Describe the roles of sign language, spoken language, and assistive technologies in promoting accessibility and inclusion.
* Reflect on how multimodal and inclusive teaching strategies can enhance communication and learning outcomes.

== Table of contents ==

# Introduction
# Definitions and discussion of the definitions
# Theoretical overview
# Research Projects
# Activities: get inspired
# Take-home messages
# Self-assessment
# Resources to go further
# Bibliography

== 1. Introduction ==
Multilingual education for D/deaf and hard of hearing people is an interdisciplinary field that combines language studies, pedagogy, neuroscience, and Deaf studies. Its main goal is to ensure equitable access to education using multiple languages, including sign language, written language, and, in some cases, spoken language with technological or visual supports. 

The adoption of inclusive teaching strategies, multimodality and the use of assistive technologies are critical to improving accessibility and fostering academic and vocational success for people who are deaf and hard of hearing.

This resource will explore theoretical principles, educational models, and best practices for effective multilingual education in this field, taking into consideration specifically the cultural context and the fact that we have to distinguish between two groups of  a) deaf and hard of hearing  people who are learners of sign languages, b) deaf and hard of hearing people who are learning spoken languages.
== 2. Theoretical overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Term
!Focus
!Typical Communication Mode
!Cultural Aspect
|-
|Deaf (capital D)
|Cultural and linguistic identity
|Sign language
|Member of Deaf community
|-
|deaf (lowercase d)
|General term
|May vary
|Not necessarily
|-
|Hard of Hearing
|Medical / audiological condition; Partial hearing loss
|Spoken language, sometimes with supports or signs
|Not necessarily
|}
When talking about deafness and hearing loss in the context of language acquisition—such as questions about the best learning methods, communication strategies, or possible outcomes for deaf and hard of hearing learners—there is often only one possible answer: ‘It depends’. This is because generalizing about multilingualism is already extremely difficult, and even more so when considering individuals with deafness or hearing loss. These learners exhibit unique linguistic features influenced not only by environmental, personal, cultural, and emotional factors (as with all language users), but also by perceptual, articulatory, and educational/rehabilitative factors. Therefore, any reflection, hypothesis, or suggestion about specific teaching techniques, methods, or approaches in language learning may be effective for some and wholly unproductive for others.”

This bilingual condition can be described as bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.

* Bimodal means that two different communication channels are used: one spoken and auditory (for example Italian language) and one visual and gestural (LIS – Italian Sign Language).
* Dilalic describes a situation in which a person can use two linguistic codes that belong to the same linguistic system or community, choosing one or the other depending on the context, the interlocutor, or the communicative purpose.
* Simultaneous means that both languages can sometimes be used together, since they operate through different channels (voice and hands at the same time).

Deafness manifests its most profound and significant effects precisely in the sphere of linguistic communication. Almost all deaf and hard of hearing signers, for example, in Italy, know and use the Italian language, which guarantees them access to social and professional life. In these cases, we refer to a form of bilingualism that is extremely complex and idiosyncratic, which we might call “bimodal, dilalic, and simultaneous.” As introduced above, bimodal means the use of Spoken language and Signed language, that rely on two different communicative channels (phono-acoustic and visual-gestural); dilalic means a deaf or hard of hearing person that can use either of the two codes in their repertoire depending on contextual variables, such as the communicative situation, the characteristics of the interlocutor, the communicative purpose, etc.; simultaneous means that the speaker/signer can exploit both language systems at the same time, as they operate on different communicative channels. Depending on the linguistic, educational, and rehabilitative path undertaken by the deaf and hard of hearing learner, this determines how oral and written messages are perceived and processed both cognitively and linguistically.

Concerning deaf and hard of hearing as multilingual learners (DMLs), we have to consider that these students not only navigate the challenges of hearing differences but also face a range of different languages and modalities while growing up. In this sense, the underlying idea is the distinction between vertical identity, which comes from family and heritage, and horizontal identity, which develops through interactions with the broader community. This is especially significant for DMLs, as they often balance multiple languages and cultural influences. 

Moreover, plurilingual development can happen in different ways, as the wide range of variational factors characterize d/deaf and hard of hearing learners’ experiences. Some children learn languages sequentially (one after another), while others acquire them simultaneously. On the one hand, the way languages are learned can be additive, when new languages enhance existing ones; on the other hand, it can result in subtractive learning, when a new language replaces a home language.

Learning a second sign language for individuals whose first language is a sign language presents unique opportunities and challenges. Just like spoken languages, sign languages differ significantly in grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Therefore, teaching a new sign language to deaf and hard of hearing individuals requires specialized instructional approaches that consider their existing linguistic competencies and the distinct characteristics of the languages involved. In this sense, it is relevant to take into account a bilingual approach, thus the use of both the native sign language and the target sign language, that can facilitate learning through comparison and translation of the two visual languages, leading to a deep understanding of the differences and similarities between languages and cultures. Moreover, the involvement of deaf educators is essential to ensure authentic linguistic modeling, value deaf culture, and promote an inclusive learning environment. 

Additionally, it is impossible to ignore the challenges and considerations of the linguistic diversity between sign languages, as well as the lack of educational resources that are limited and need to be developed by adapting existing materials or creating new ones. Furthermore, the official recognition of sign languages still varies across countries, making the situation more and more heterogeneous: For example, in Italy, LIS has only recently been officially recognized, impacting the availability of formal courses and the development of structured educational programs.

Teaching foreign spoken languages to deaf and hard of hearing learners can involve challenges, as traditional communicative approaches may not be suitable because these learners cannot hear spoken input. They can have limited exposure to auditory language, which makes engagement with listening and speaking-based methods difficult. Additionally, each deaf and hard of hearing learner can have a unique linguistic background, with varying proficiency in their first language (L1) and different starting points for learning a second language (L2). Therefore, language learning approaches can be tailored to individual needs, especially for bimodal learners who may even have a third language.

Motivation and emotional well-being can also play a significant role in language success for deaf and hard of hearing learners. Their self-esteem can influence their learning environment, and teachers can foster a positive atmosphere by addressing these factors. Since deaf and hard of hearing learners primarily process information visually, teaching methods can be adapted to leverage this strength through visual strategies like color-coding, information chunking, and visual memory exercises, which can support language retention. Moreover, incorporating playful and collaborative activities, such as group work and role-playing, can create a more relaxed atmosphere, encouraging interaction and making language acquisition more effective for these students.

== 3. Research Projects ==
These projects have been chosen to be featured here because they represent unique examples of initiatives acknowledged by European authorities that closely relate to the core themes addressed in this lesson.

=== ''PRO-Sign'' ===
https://www.ecml.at/en/ECML-Programme/Programme-2012-2015/ProSign

''The PRO-Sign project'' adapts the CEFR to sign languages, creating the first European proficiency standards for sign languages, particularly for Deaf Studies and interpreting programs in higher education across Europe and beyond. The website serves as a resource for educators, teacher trainers, and curriculum developers in tertiary education and supports organizations like the European Union of the Deaf (EUD) and the World Federation of the Deaf (WFD). It provides &quot;Can Do&quot; descriptors for sign language skills (reception, interaction, production) across levels from A1 to C2, including &quot;plus levels&quot; (e.g., A2+). As with other CEFR tools, not all sub-categories are covered at every level. The system should be used critically, as the CEFR may need further adaptation for specific contexts. An International Sign (IS) version and assessment framework aligned with the CEFR are also available on the site.

=== ''SpreadTheSign'' ===
https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/

SpreadTheSign is an online platform developed in collaboration with Ca’ Foscari University, aimed at promoting sign languages from around the world. It provides video dictionaries, learning resources, and tools for both hearing and Deaf users to explore and learn different sign languages, fostering accessibility and intercultural communication.

=== ''LangSkills II'' ===
https://www.teiresias.muni.cz/en/veda-a-vyzkum/projects/language-skills-and-learning-preferences-of-deaf

The project ''Language Skills and Learning Preferences of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students'' supported by the Teiresias Centre at Masaryk University and funded by the European Union under Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme, was running from November 2021 to October 2024. It aimed to improve the foreign language learning experience for Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing learners. It focused on identifying learning styles and strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of learning, promoting a more autonomous approach to education. This collaboration between Masaryk University, John Paul II Catholic University, Siena School for Liberal Arts, and supported by EUDY aimed at enhancing foreign language learning for deaf and hard of hearing learners by raising awareness of their learning preferences, leveraging strengths, and promoting self-reflection and autonomy. Its key outcomes include adapted surveys, research on learning strategies, a resource pack, and a best practices bank, all designed to foster better understanding, inclusivity, and improved opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing learners in language education.

=== ''The SigHub Project'' ===
https://thesignhub.eu/

The SIGN-HUB platform is an innovative and inclusive resource hub for the linguistic, historical and cultural documentation of European sign languages and their Deaf communities' heritage. This platform has been developed during the SIGN-HUB project which was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant Agreement No 693349. If you would like to find out more about the SIGN-HUB project itself and the consortium of institutions and countries that developed this platform, please visit the section “SIGN-HUB Project”. The platform provides four major sections that can be used independently as an information resource for researchers, scholars, teachers, interpreters, and anybody interested in sign languages.

=== ''LIS-A project'' ===
''https://research.uniroma1.it/fis2-lis-constructing-first-european-framework-teaching-and-assessing-italian-sign-language-lis-lis''

This FIS project, funded by MUR for the years 2025-2028, aims to develop the LIS-A standardized proficiency test for Italian Sign Language (LIS), addressing the lack of structured assessment tools in Italy. Despite significant advances in sign language research over the past fifty years, LIS teaching and evaluation have mainly relied on informal methods and practitioner insights, which are not systematically grounded. With growing interest in LIS courses across several Italian universities, the need for a formal, reliable assessment framework becomes increasingly important to evaluate and certify learners’ proficiency levels effectively. LIS-A project's main goal is the development of a valid and reliable LIS proficiency exam, from a methodological point of view, as well as a more precise skills definition for LIS professionals, promoting inclusivity and reducing inequalities. Overall, it seeks to establish a structured, fair assessment system aligned with Italy’s changing educational and professional needs.

== 4. Activities: get inspired ==
To help learners build vocabulary, sentence structure, and storytelling skills using sign language, spoken and written text independently.

'''Materials Needed:'''

* Picture cards or storybook with simple sentences
* Notebook or digital document for writing
* Access to digital sign language vocabulary (e.g., SpreadTheSign)

'''Activity Steps:'''

'''Warm-Up (5-10 mins)'''

# Choose 3–5 picture cards or images with common objects or actions (e.g., a dog running, a child eating).
# Look up the corresponding signs for each word using SpreadTheSign https://www.spreadthesign.com/it.it/search/.
# Write the word, watch the sign, and say it aloud. Repeat each word 3–5 times.
# Optional: Record yourself signing or speaking each word for review.

'''Building Sentences''' 

# Pick one picture card or image.
# Create a simple sentence using that image 
# Break the sentence into individual words and review:
#* Vocabulary meaning
#* Word order and sentence structure
# Practice:
#* Sign the sentence
#* Speak the sentence aloud
#* Write the sentence in your notebook
# Repeat with 2–3 more sentences using different images.

'''Reflection &amp; Wrap-Up''' 

# Choose your favorite new word or sentence from the activity.
# Write a short story or paragraph using at least 3 new words learned.
# Optional: Record a short video signing and speaking your story.

Now try to translate this sentence into a sign language using three steps. This is exemplified in the following for Italian and Italian Sign Language (LIS), but can be adapted to any other language and sign language:

Use LIS signs but follow exactly the spoken Italian grammar and word order, including fingerspelling for grammatical words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.).

Example: Sign each word in the order used in Italian, fingerspell

Now use sign language, maintaining Italian word order and structure, but without the strictness of fingerspelling of small grammatical words.

Translate in a natural Sign Language

Translate the meaning into a sign language using its natural grammar and spatial features (e.g., showing bookcase location through hand position rather than a linear sequence of signs).

Reflect on differences in structure, grammar, and meaning at each step.

== 5. Take home messages and pedagogical implications ==
* Plurilingualism among deaf and hard of hearing people is multimodal.
* Plurilingual education promotes linguistic access, cognitive flexibility, and social inclusion.
* Sign languages are full linguistic systems, essential for identity and culture.
* Deaf and hard of hearing learners benefit from multimodal and visual teaching strategies.
* Collaboration between deaf and hearing educators strengthens the learning environment.
* Technological and pedagogical tools should be adapted to each learner’s linguistic background.

== 6. Self-assessment ==

=== Multiple choice quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What does “bimodal bilingualism” mean?}
-a) Using two spoken languages
+b) Using two communication channels (spoken and signed) 
-c) Learning languages sequentially

{The capital “D” in “Deaf” refers to:}
-a) A medical condition
+b) A cultural-linguistic identity
-c) A level of hearing loss

{The goal of multilingual education for deaf learners is to:}
-a) Focus exclusively on oral language
+b) Ensure access to learning through multiple languages and modalities
-c) Replace sign language with written communication
&lt;/quiz&gt;
=== Open reflection ===

* How does plurilingualism influence the identity of deaf and hard of hearing learners?
* Which visual and multimodal strategies could improve inclusion in your classroom or learning environment?

== 7. Resources to go further ==

* Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.
* Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.
* European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 
* Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge, 1982.
* World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021

== 8. Bibliography ==
Bettini, V., Battista, C. (1999). Talking Hands: Basic English Course for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners. Bologna: Zanichelli.

Calabrò, L.; Carrazza, M.; Roccaforte, M. (2023). Foreign languages and deafness: how to build up TEFL on deaf students’ strengths and needs Rivista di psicolinguistica applicata. XXIII, 1:2023, pp. 29-46.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.

Domagala-Zusk, E. (2010) ''Students with severe hearing impairments as competent learners of English as a second language''. Brno, Masaryk University.

Dotter, F. (2008) ''English for Deaf sign language users: still a challenge''. Bern, Peter Lang.

European Sign Language Center - ''Spread the Sign – Erasmus+ KA2 Strategic Partnership 2019–2022.'' https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/ateneo/internazionale/europrogettazione_didattica/risultati-progetti/2014-2020/StrategicPartnerships/2019_KA2_SPREAD.pdf

Haug, T.; Keller, J. ESF Exploratory Workshop on Development of Theoretical and Practical Guidelines for the Adaptation of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) to sign languages: Scientific Report. Summary of the European Science Foundation Exploratory Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, 16-18 September 2011. Zurich, Switzerland, 2012. 

Janakova, D. (2005) ''Teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing students at secondary and tertiary levels of education''. Prague, Eurolex 

Leeson, L.; Van den Bogarde, B.; Rathmann, C.; Haug, T. Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Common Reference Level Descriptors. Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2016. 

Marshark, M., Spencer, P.E. (2016) ''The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language.'' Oxford University Press 

Onofrio, D., Rinaldi, P., &amp; Pettenati, P. (2012). &quot;Il primo sviluppo del linguaggio in bambini che imparano più lingue: una proposta per la valutazione e l'interpretazione del profilo linguistico&quot;. RIVISTEWEB.ITinica dello Sviluppo, 16(3), 661-670.

Rinaldi, P., Caselli, M. C., Stefanini, S., Bello, A., &amp; Pasqualetti, P. (2019). &quot;From action to spoken and signed language through gesture: Some basic developmental issues for a discussion on the evolution of the human language-ready brain&quot;. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2750.

Rinaldi, P., Tomasuolo, E., &amp; Resca, A. (2018). &quot;La sordità infantile. Nuove prospettive di intervento&quot;. Erickson. 

Roccaforte, M. (2022). Verso la definizione di un sillabo per la valutazione della competenza linguistica nella lingua dei segni italiana (LIS). Bollettino di italianistica 2/2022, pp. 175-189. 

Timmermans, N. (Ed.) in co-operation with the Committee on the Rehabilitation and Integration of People with disabilities (CD-P-RR), The status of sign languages in Europe. F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing, 2005. ONG, W. J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 1982.

Trovato, S. (2014). Insegno in segni. Linguaggio, cognizione, successo scolastico per gli studenti sordi. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore

Volterra, V., Roccaforte, M., Di Renzo, A., Fontana, S. (2022). Spoken and signed languages between cognition and semiotics. The case of Italian Sign Language. Benjamins

Woll, B. A sign of the times. The New Scientist, v. 27, 2022.

World Health Organization. World report on hearing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2021.

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      <comment>Created page with &quot;{{Short description|Explanation of energy, mass, photons, and relativistic energy in quantum physics}} [[File:Quantum_BookII_photon_web.jpg|thumb|430px|Photon as a carrier of electromagnetic energy.]] '''Quantum explanation of energy''' explains how energy is used in quantum and relativistic physics. It starts from a common puzzle: if light has no rest mass, how can it still heat matter, push on a mirror, eject an electron, or fall into a black hole? The answer is that e...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="24552" sha1="8m8hg7vawkla71vv9d74tvabwazc6bg" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Explanation of energy, mass, photons, and relativistic energy in quantum physics}}
[[File:Quantum_BookII_photon_web.jpg|thumb|430px|Photon as a carrier of electromagnetic energy.]]
'''Quantum explanation of energy''' explains how energy is used in quantum and relativistic physics. It starts from a common puzzle: if light has no rest mass, how can it still heat matter, push on a mirror, eject an electron, or fall into a black hole? The answer is that energy is not a substance stored inside things. It is a conserved quantity used to track what a physical system can do, how it can change, and how it can exchange motion, radiation, binding, and field excitations with other systems.

The familiar formula &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt; is therefore only one part of the story. A body with rest mass has rest energy, but a photon has no rest mass and still carries energy and momentum. This page separates three ideas that are often blurred together: rest mass, total energy, and transported energy. It then connects those ideas to photons, atomic transitions, nuclear binding, radiation pressure, gravity, black holes, and the Hamiltonian description of quantum time evolution.&lt;ref name=&quot;einstein1905&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsQM&quot; /&gt;


== Etymology and discovery ==
The word ''energy'' comes from Greek roots associated with activity or work, but its modern physical meaning was sharpened through mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, relativity, and quantum theory. The biographical anchor here is [[Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]], because the relation between mass and energy became central after special relativity, while the photon picture made light a carrier of discrete energy quanta.&lt;ref name=&quot;einstein1905&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |title=Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content? |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=18 |pages=639-641 |year=1905 |doi=10.1002/andp.19053231314}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;planck1901&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Planck |first=Max |title=On the law of distribution of energy in the normal spectrum |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=4 |pages=553-563 |year=1901 |doi=10.1002/andp.19013090310}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For this page the important point is that ''energy'' is not identical with ordinary rest mass. Rest mass is one contribution to energy, but radiation, fields, binding, motion, pressure, and curvature can all enter the bookkeeping of physical systems. That broader meaning is why energy is better treated as a conserved physical quantity assigned to a physical state than as a substance hidden inside matter.&lt;ref name=&quot;noether1918&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Noether |first=Emmy |title=Invariante Variationsprobleme |journal=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse |year=1918 |pages=235-257 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Physical content ==
The popular formula &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt; is the rest-energy relation for a body in its own rest frame. It says that a body with invariant mass &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; has rest energy &lt;math&gt;mc^2&lt;/math&gt;. It does not say that all energy must be rest mass, nor that a massless object has no energy.&lt;ref name=&quot;taylorWheeler&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Edwin F. |last2=Wheeler |first2=John Archibald |title=Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity |edition=2nd |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1992 |isbn=9780716723271}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Quantum energy mass shell diagram.png|thumb|430px|Energy, momentum, and invariant mass in special relativity. A photon has &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt; but still carries energy and momentum.]]

The more general special-relativistic relation is

:&lt;math&gt;E^2 = p^2c^2 + m^2c^4.&lt;/math&gt;

Here &lt;math&gt;E&lt;/math&gt; is total energy, &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is momentum, and &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; is invariant mass. If the object is at rest, then &lt;math&gt;p=0&lt;/math&gt; and the equation reduces to &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt;. If the object is a photon, then &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt;, and the equation becomes &lt;math&gt;E=pc&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsQM&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=David J. |title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics |edition=3rd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781107189638}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The distinction is not only a matter of vocabulary. A proton, an electron, and an atom have rest frames and invariant masses. A photon does not have a rest frame, so the rest-energy formula is not the right starting point for it. A beam of light can nevertheless deliver energy to a detector, exert radiation pressure, heat a surface, or increase the mass-energy of a system that absorbs it.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsEM&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=David J. |title=Introduction to Electrodynamics |edition=4th |publisher=Pearson |year=2013 |isbn=9780321856562}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A useful everyday analogy is bookkeeping rather than stuff. A bank account can change because cash is deposited, interest is added, debt is cancelled, or a transfer arrives. The account balance is real, but it is not made of only one kind of object. Energy works similarly in physics. Kinetic energy, rest energy, field energy, binding energy, heat, and radiation energy are different entries in one conservation law. The entries can be converted into one another only when the system, frame, boundary conditions, and allowed interactions are specified.

In this sense energy is closer to a disciplined accounting rule than to a material fluid. One should ask what system is being described, what can do work on what, what is allowed to cross the boundary, and which observer is measuring the motion. That is why the same word can describe a photon in flight, a bound electron in an atom, a heated box, a nuclear reaction, or a black hole absorbing radiation.

== Three meanings often confused ==
Three related uses of energy often get compressed into one slogan. The first is ''rest energy'', the energy associated with invariant mass in the rest frame of a massive object. The second is ''total energy'', which also includes motion and field contributions. The third is ''transported energy'', the energy carried from one system to another by particles, radiation, waves, or fields.

[[File:Quantum energy carriers diagram.png|thumb|430px|Energy can be carried as rest energy, kinetic energy, photon energy, field energy, binding energy, or stress-energy.]]

A plain-language way to put it is this: rest energy tells what a massive object contributes even when it is not moving; total energy tells what the whole physical state contributes in a chosen frame; transported energy tells what has moved from one system to another. A photon is the cleanest example of the third case. It is not massive matter, but it can still carry a definite amount of energy from an emitter to an absorber.

The distinction matters in quantum physics because the same experiment may involve all three. An atom has rest mass; its electron has kinetic and potential energy in a bound state; it may absorb a photon with energy &lt;math&gt;hf&lt;/math&gt;; and the transition changes the atom's internal energy. The observed spectral line is not a little piece of rest mass flying away. It is an exchange of quantized electromagnetic energy between a field and a material system.&lt;ref name=&quot;sakurai&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sakurai |first1=J. J. |last2=Napolitano |first2=Jim |title=Modern Quantum Mechanics |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9781108422413}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The same bookkeeping also appears in nuclear physics. A bound nucleus usually has a mass smaller than the sum of the separated protons and neutrons. The difference is the mass defect, and the corresponding energy &lt;math&gt;\Delta E=\Delta mc^2&lt;/math&gt; is the nuclear binding energy. In fusion or fission the products can be more tightly bound than the initial system, and the difference appears as kinetic energy, radiation, or excitation energy.&lt;ref name=&quot;kraneNuclear&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Krane |first=Kenneth S. |title=Introductory Nuclear Physics |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |year=1988 |isbn=9780471805533}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This example is important because it prevents a second common misunderstanding. Mass is not merely the amount of matter in a bag. The mass of a composite system includes the energy of its internal motion and interactions. A hot object has slightly more mass than the same object when cold; a charged capacitor has slightly more mass than when discharged; a nucleus has less mass than its separated constituents when binding energy has been released. These effects are normally tiny in everyday systems, but in nuclear reactions and astrophysics they become large enough to power stars and reactors.

== Photon as energy carrier ==
A photon is a quantum of the electromagnetic field. It has zero rest mass, but it carries energy and momentum. Its energy is proportional to its frequency,

:&lt;math&gt;E = hf = \hbar\omega,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is Planck's constant, &lt;math&gt;\hbar=h/(2\pi)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is frequency, and &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt; is angular frequency. A blue photon has more energy than a red photon; an X-ray or gamma-ray photon carries still more energy per quantum.&lt;ref name=&quot;planck1901&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pdg&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Particle Data Group |title=Review of Particle Physics |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |access-date=2026-07-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Quantum energy atomic transition diagram.png|thumb|430px|Atomic absorption and emission show energy exchange without treating the photon as a massive pellet.]]

The momentum of a photon is related to wavelength by

:&lt;math&gt;p = \frac{h}{\lambda} = \hbar k,&lt;/math&gt;

and because &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt;, the relativistic relation gives &lt;math&gt;E=pc&lt;/math&gt;. These equations explain why light can carry both energy and momentum without having rest mass. Radiation pressure, the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and photon recoil in atoms all depend on this point.&lt;ref name=&quot;compton1923&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Compton |first=Arthur H. |title=A quantum theory of the scattering of X-rays by light elements |journal=Physical Review |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=483-502 |year=1923 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.21.483}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This is why it is accurate to call a photon an energy carrier. It is not a little massive pellet. It is an excitation of a field with no rest frame, always moving at the invariant speed &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; in vacuum. Nevertheless it can heat matter, eject electrons, push on mirrors, transfer momentum, and be absorbed by a black hole.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsEM&quot; /&gt;

A simple laboratory example is the photoelectric effect. Light incident on a metal can eject electrons only if the photon energy exceeds a threshold associated with the material. Increasing the brightness increases the number of photons, while increasing the frequency increases the energy per photon. The experiment therefore separates intensity from photon energy and shows why the carrier picture is useful.&lt;ref name=&quot;einstein1905photo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |title=On a heuristic point of view concerning the production and transformation of light |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=17 |pages=132-148 |year=1905 |doi=10.1002/andp.19053220607}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Radiation pressure gives another connection with everyday physics. A mirror or solar sail can be pushed by light because reflected photons change momentum. The force is small for ordinary lamps but measurable in precision experiments and important for spacecraft concepts, laser cooling, optical tweezers, and stellar radiation fields. Again the key point is that zero rest mass does not mean zero physical effect.

== Mass, gravity, and energy bookkeeping ==
In general relativity, gravity couples not only to rest mass but to the stress-energy tensor: energy density, momentum density, pressure, stress, and flux. A box filled with light has greater total energy than the same empty box, and that total energy contributes to the gravitational mass of the system.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtw&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Misner |first1=Charles W. |last2=Thorne |first2=Kip S. |last3=Wheeler |first3=John Archibald |title=Gravitation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1973 |isbn=9780716703440}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Quantum energy hot cold photon box.png|thumb|430px|A hotter box of radiation has greater total energy. The photons have zero rest mass, but the system mass changes by &lt;math&gt;\Delta M=\Delta E/c^2&lt;/math&gt;.]]

The box example is conceptually useful because it removes the temptation to attach energy only to material particles. Imagine a perfectly reflecting box containing radiation. The individual photons have zero rest mass, but the box-plus-radiation system has a center-of-mass frame and a total energy. If more radiation is added, the total mass-energy of the closed system increases by &lt;math&gt;\Delta E/c^2&lt;/math&gt;. The same reasoning applies to heat stored in matter, chemical energy in a battery, or field energy in a capacitor, although the changes are usually far too small to weigh directly in ordinary laboratory conditions.

For black holes this bookkeeping matters. A photon falling into a black hole increases the black hole's mass-energy even though the photon has no rest mass. In Hawking radiation, the usual simplified story says that positive energy escapes to infinity while an effective negative-energy contribution crosses the horizon, reducing the black hole mass. The rigorous description uses quantum fields in curved spacetime rather than ordinary particles tunnelling out from inside the horizon.&lt;ref name=&quot;hawking1975&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Hawking |first=Stephen W. |title=Particle creation by black holes |journal=Communications in Mathematical Physics |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=199-220 |year=1975 |doi=10.1007/BF02345020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This also shows why the phrase ''energy without mass'' must be read carefully. It is correct if ''mass'' means rest mass, as in the photon case. It is incomplete if it ignores momentum, frequency, field state, or the system that carries the energy. Physics tracks those quantities together through the energy-momentum tensor and through conservation laws, not as separate substances.

== Quantum description ==
In quantum mechanics, energy is associated with the Hamiltonian, the operator that generates time evolution. Stationary states have definite energy eigenvalues, while more general states can be superpositions of different energies. Energy conservation follows from time-translation symmetry: if the laws do not change with time, a corresponding conserved energy exists.&lt;ref name=&quot;noether1918&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsQM&quot; /&gt;

[[File:Quantum energy hamiltonian time evolution.png|thumb|430px|The Hamiltonian is the energy operator that generates quantum time evolution.]]

For a state &lt;math&gt;|\psi(t)\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, time evolution is described by the Schrödinger equation,

:&lt;math&gt;i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t}|\psi(t)\rangle = \hat{H}|\psi(t)\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;|E_n\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is an energy eigenstate, then

:&lt;math&gt;\hat{H}|E_n\rangle = E_n|E_n\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

These equations connect energy with measurable spectra. The lines in atomic spectroscopy, the spacing of oscillator levels, and the energy thresholds in particle reactions are all examples of energy appearing as allowed outcomes or differences between allowed outcomes.&lt;ref name=&quot;sakurai&quot; /&gt;

An energy eigenstate does not have to look like a little object sitting still. In many systems it is a wavefunction or field mode with a fixed allowed energy. A superposition of two energy eigenstates evolves with relative phases that change in time. Those changing phases can produce beats, interference, transition probabilities, and oscillations. This is why energy in quantum mechanics is tied not only to measurement outcomes but also to the rhythm of time evolution.

The harmonic oscillator is the standard example. Its allowed energies are

:&lt;math&gt;E_n = \hbar\omega\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right),\qquad n=0,1,2,\ldots&lt;/math&gt;

The term &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}\hbar\omega&lt;/math&gt; is the zero-point energy. It means the lowest allowed state is not the classical state of zero motion and zero energy. The concept appears in molecular vibrations, phonons, quantum optics, and field modes. It must be handled carefully, because only energy differences or properly renormalized quantities are directly measurable in many contexts.&lt;ref name=&quot;casimir1948&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Casimir |first=H. B. G. |title=On the attraction between two perfectly conducting plates |journal=Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen |volume=51 |pages=793-795 |year=1948}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Energy exchange and measurement ==
Quantum measurements usually detect energy indirectly. A photodetector records an excitation; a calorimeter converts particle energy into heat, light, ionization, or charge; an atom changes level after absorbing or emitting radiation. In each case, the statement that a quantum system has exchanged energy depends on a calibrated interaction with a measuring device.

This is why photons are central examples. They connect frequency, field excitation, and detector response in one object. A single photon can be counted, but the energy it carries is not arbitrary: it is fixed by the mode frequency. Larger classical electromagnetic waves are then built from many such field excitations, or from quantum states whose average behaviour reproduces classical radiation.

Real instruments make the bookkeeping visible. In a gamma-ray detector, a photon may deposit energy through Compton scattering, pair production, or photoelectric absorption. In a particle calorimeter, a high-energy particle produces a shower whose total ionization or light output estimates the original energy. In an atomic clock, the frequency of radiation is locked to a transition energy. In a laser, stimulated emission turns stored atomic or material excitation into a coherent electromagnetic field.

The practical lesson is that energy is always inferred through interactions. A number printed on a detector display is not a direct look at an invisible fluid. It is the result of a model connecting a physical process, a calibration standard, and a conserved quantity. The detector does not see energy as a substance; it records ionization, heat, charge, light, or timing, and the physicist interprets that response through a tested model.

This is why energy links so many parts of physics. Quantum theory supplies the allowed transitions and probabilities. Relativity supplies the relation between energy, momentum, and mass. Thermodynamics describes the macroscopic accounting when many degrees of freedom are involved. The same conservation idea appears in each case, but the physical carrier can be very different.


== Worked examples ==
A first example is an atomic transition. Suppose an electron in an atom drops from an excited level to a lower level. The atom does not normally eject a piece of rest mass to account for the difference. Instead, the change in internal energy appears as a photon with energy &lt;math&gt;hf=E_i-E_f&lt;/math&gt;. The photon can later be absorbed by another atom or detector, raising a different system into an excited state. The same energy has moved from one quantum system to another, but the carrier has zero rest mass.&lt;ref name=&quot;sakurai&quot; /&gt;

A second example is nuclear binding. A helium nucleus has less mass than two isolated protons and two isolated neutrons. The missing mass is not an error in counting particles; it is the binding energy released when the bound state forms. In stars, fusion reactions exploit this difference. The products are more tightly bound, and the energy difference leaves as kinetic energy, photons, neutrinos, or thermal motion in the surrounding plasma.&lt;ref name=&quot;kraneNuclear&quot; /&gt;

A third example is radiation pressure. A beam of light falling on a mirror transfers momentum when photons are reflected. No photon rest mass is needed. The pressure follows from electromagnetic momentum and is tiny for everyday light sources, but it becomes useful in optical traps, laser cooling, precision interferometers, and solar-sail concepts. This is often the simplest real-world way to see that energy transport and momentum transport are linked.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsEM&quot; /&gt;

A fourth example is thermal radiation. A hot cavity contains more photon energy than a cold cavity. The photons are massless individually, but the closed cavity-plus-radiation system has a greater total mass-energy. This is the cleanest answer to the question whether energy without rest mass can gravitate: the system does not care that the carriers have &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt;; it responds to the total stress-energy content.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtw&quot; /&gt;

== Common misconceptions ==
One misconception is that &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt; means matter can simply be converted into energy as if energy were another kind of stuff. In actual reactions, conserved quantities still have to balance: electric charge, baryon number where applicable, lepton number where applicable, momentum, angular momentum, and energy. Pair annihilation, nuclear decay, and particle collisions do not erase bookkeeping; they move it into different fields and particles.

A second misconception is that a massless particle must be physically weak or unreal. A photon can ionize atoms, damage molecules, trigger a detector, transfer momentum to a mirror, or heat a surface. The absence of rest mass means there is no frame in which the photon is at rest. It does not mean the photon lacks energy, momentum, or measurable consequences.

A third misconception is that zero-point energy is a limitless store of usable energy. The ground-state energy of a quantum oscillator is real in the formal description, and differences associated with boundary conditions can have observable effects such as the Casimir effect. But extracting unlimited work from a ground state would violate the same energy bookkeeping the concept comes from. The practical question is always which energy difference is physically accessible and how the apparatus returns to its initial state.&lt;ref name=&quot;casimir1948&quot; /&gt;

A fourth misconception is that gravity only responds to rest mass. In relativity, the source is the full stress-energy content. Rest mass is important, but so are momentum, pressure, stress, and field energy. This is why a black hole can gain mass-energy by absorbing light, and why the energy stored in a system contributes to its inertia even when that energy is carried by massless fields.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtw&quot; /&gt;

== Modeling and limitations ==
Energy is not something one can touch or hold. It is a conserved quantity assigned to physical states under specified assumptions. In simple situations, such as an isolated laboratory system in nearly flat spacetime, total energy and momentum can be defined cleanly. In harder situations, such as cosmology, accelerating frames, or regions near horizons, the question has to be asked more carefully: energy of which system, measured by which observer, and relative to which background?

One limitation is frame dependence. Kinetic energy depends on the observer's frame, while invariant mass does not. A fast particle has more total energy in a laboratory frame than in its own rest frame, but the particle has the same invariant mass in both descriptions. A photon has no rest frame at all, so its energy is measured relative to the observer: the same photon can be redshifted or blueshifted depending on relative motion or gravitational field.

A second limitation is that potential and binding energies depend on how the system is divided. The mass of a bound system includes interaction energy, but assigning that energy to one constituent or another may not be meaningful. In field theory the problem becomes sharper: vacuum energy, zero-point energy, and renormalization require a careful distinction between absolute formal terms and observable differences.&lt;ref name=&quot;weinbergQFT&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=Steven |title=The Quantum Theory of Fields, Volume 1: Foundations |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=9780521550017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The phrase ''energy without mass'' is therefore correct when it means energy without rest mass, as in photons. It would be misleading only if it meant energy without momentum, frequency, field state, boundary conditions, or a physical system carrying the quantity. A good rule is to ask four questions: energy of which system, measured by which observer, exchanged by which interaction, and conserved under which symmetry? That wording keeps the simple intuition without losing the physics.


= References =
{{reflist|3}}</text>
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      <comment>Academic research requires more than collecting information and putting ideas together. Students need to analyze sources, develop strong arguments, organize their thoughts, and present findings in a clear academic format.</comment>
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      <text bytes="1563" sha1="c0luqwm4x2s8aqe5ko840zzicol6bvk" xml:space="preserve">== What Makes Professional Research Paper Support Valuable for Academic Success ==
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      <comment>Projet PEP moved page [[Multulingual turn]] to [[Multilingual turn]]: Fix spelling and/or grammar</comment>
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