Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion

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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Concomitant Strabismus]] ==

Undeveloped with the author not being active on this project in over a decade. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:13, 8 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>rvdrkgezs95cc03g6tb1lq5htxikt9a</sha1>
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      <id>2817944</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-07-08T21:23:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
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      <comment>/* IMHA Research Archives */ Closed and deleted.</comment>
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== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
{{archive top|The latest comment declared that this should be deleted—it's done. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:23, 8 July 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Concomitant Strabismus]] ==

Undeveloped with the author not being active on this project in over a decade. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:13, 8 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>bkc3mm2wcwjpb7apjk3s8qfwz3unvy7</sha1>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* IMHA Research Archives */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/22#IMHA Research Archives]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== [[Classical guitar pedagogy]] ==

According to the talk page, the author of this page intended to create this page for Wikipedia. At this moment in time (nearly 20 years later), the page is still riddled with red links and doesn't seem to fit Wikiversity's learning modules. Therefore, I propose that this page should be deleted. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:03, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:'''Weak delete''' This at least has &lt;em&gt;something&lt;/em&gt; that someone could use, but agreed that it's not particularly useful and not likely to be developed. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 00:25, 20 May 2026 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to [[w:User:Grégory Leclair/Classical guitar pedagogy]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 13:18, 23 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[Concomitant Strabismus]] ==

Undeveloped with the author not being active on this project in over a decade. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:13, 8 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="4641" sha1="6pcbqbht8e68mf8wjiqkco67gf70taw" xml:space="preserve">{{psychology}}
Welcome to '''Basic Psychology''', This unit aims to prepare you for an advanced psychology course, such as [[Introduction to Psychology]] or [[Advanced Psychology]].

==Objectives==
By the end of this unit, the student will be able to: 

* Describe Psychology briefly, identify notable psychologists, and describe key experiments.
* Appreciate the importance of psychological principles as they apply to everyday life.
* Understand how ethics play an important role in many sciences, and briefly describe ethics.
* Understand, evaluate and give detailed descriptions of social behaviors.
* Understand how and why the brain, central and peripheral nervous systems, and human development works.
* Understand how '''other''' animals differ from humans psychologically.
    
==Course outline==
* Introduction to Psychology as a science
Lecture Quiz (Un-assessed)
* Ethics in Psychology
Assessment Piece (Essay on Ethics)
* Social Psychology
*# Introduction to social behavior
*# Behavior in groups
Assessment Piece (Empirical Research Activity)  
* Human Development
* The Brain and Nervous System
*# Central Nervous System
*# Peripheral Nervous System
Assessment Piece (Essay on brain, or nervous systems)
* Behavior of animals (other than humans)

===Course completion=== 
Requires a mark of 64% or higher, (determined by scores in assessment pieces, and the final test.)

== Lecture One: '''a brief Introduction to Psychology''' ==
Why do people feel, think, and act the way they do? For over a century psychologists have been searching for an answer to this question. This lecture serves as a very general introduction to the field. For this lecture, we will use &quot;Donna - an autistic lady&quot;, as an example.

=== Defining Psychology ===
Psychology (Ancient Greek, psyche = soul and logos = word) is the scientific study of human and animal behavior and mental processes. People with different approaches view Psychology in different ways; for example, a humanistic approach views Psychology in terms of helping others, whereas an objectivist approach views Psychology as discovering the laws that govern human behavior. Many people study Psychology to pursue a career as a Clinical or Counseling Psychologist and they might see psychology as helping those with mental problems (e.g. Donna's Autism), or helping a student overcome test anxiety. Though Psychology may be defined in many different ways, it is useful for understanding the profession of Psychology to agree on one standard definition: In this textbook, &quot;Psychology is the systematic, scientific study of behavior and mental and physiological processes.&quot;

=== Goals of Psychology ===
If you were a psychologist, studying &quot;Donna's&quot; behavior, you would have four main goals in mind. You would want to, '''describe''', '''explain''', '''predict''' and '''control''' her behavior.

# Describe:
## The first goal of psychology is to describe the different ways that organisms or in this case Donna behave.
#### As psychologists become able to describe behavior, it is easier for them to understand and explain the behavior. This brings us to the next goal;
# Explain:
###The second goal of psychology is to explain the causes of that behavior
#### Being able to describe and explain behavior helps a psychologist to ultimately control the behavior.
# Predict:
## The third goal of psychology is to predict what behavior will come next in certain situations
### Predicting a behavior is hard, unless the behavior has already been studied
#### A psychologist can attempt to predict a behavior simply using past instances of that behavior.
# Control:
### The fourth goal (though sometimes unnecessary) is to Control an organism's  or in our example Donna's behavior but counseling and clinical psychologists try to do this with psychotherapy. Experimental and Behavioral oriented psychologists use reinforcement and punishment to control behavior.
### Controlling behavior of those with disorders can be very difficult but yet behavioral change is the work of clinical and counseling psychologists.
#### for some situations, an experimental psychologists may use drugs on an animal, etc.
#### for some situations, a recommendation from a psychologist for other forms of control may be necessary and carried out by other professionals (i.e. removal by school personnel of a child with behavioral disorders from a classroom; hospitalization by a psychiatrist to control for suicidal behavior, continued imprisonment by legal authorities for those apt to continue committing crimes, etc).

[[Category:Basics]]
[[Category:Introductions]]
[[Category:Introduction to psychology]]</text>
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Welcome to '''Basic Psychology'''. This unit aims to prepare you for an advanced psychology course, such as [[Introduction to Psychology]] or [[Advanced Psychology]].

==Objectives==
By the end of this unit, the student will be able to: 

* Describe Psychology briefly, identify notable psychologists, and describe key experiments.
* Appreciate the importance of psychological principles as they apply to everyday life.
* Understand how ethics play an important role in many sciences, and briefly describe ethics.
* Understand, evaluate and give detailed descriptions of social behaviors.
* Understand how and why the brain, central and peripheral nervous systems, and human development works.
* Understand how '''other''' animals differ from humans psychologically.
    
==Course outline==
* Introduction to Psychology as a science
Lecture Quiz (Un-assessed)
* Ethics in Psychology
Assessment Piece (Essay on Ethics)
* Social Psychology
*# Introduction to social behavior
*# Behavior in groups
Assessment Piece (Empirical Research Activity)  
* Human Development
* The Brain and Nervous System
*# Central Nervous System
*# Peripheral Nervous System
Assessment Piece (Essay on brain, or nervous systems)
* Behavior of animals (other than humans)

===Course completion=== 
Requires a mark of 64% or higher, (determined by scores in assessment pieces, and the final test.)

== Lecture One: '''a brief Introduction to Psychology''' ==
Why do people feel, think, and act the way they do? For over a century psychologists have been searching for an answer to this question. This lecture serves as a very general introduction to the field. For this lecture, we will use &quot;Donna - an autistic lady&quot;, as an example.

=== Defining Psychology ===
Psychology (Ancient Greek, psyche = soul and logos = word) is the scientific study of human and animal behavior and mental processes. People with different approaches view Psychology in different ways; for example, a humanistic approach views Psychology in terms of helping others, whereas an objectivist approach views Psychology as discovering the laws that govern human behavior. Many people study Psychology to pursue a career as a Clinical or Counseling Psychologist and they might see psychology as helping those with mental problems (e.g. Donna's Autism), or helping a student overcome test anxiety. Though Psychology may be defined in many different ways, it is useful for understanding the profession of Psychology to agree on one standard definition: In this textbook, &quot;Psychology is the systematic, scientific study of behavior and mental and physiological processes.&quot;

=== Goals of Psychology ===
If you were a psychologist, studying &quot;Donna's&quot; behavior, you would have four main goals in mind. You would want to, '''describe''', '''explain''', '''predict''' and '''control''' her behavior.

# Describe:
## The first goal of psychology is to describe the different ways that organisms or in this case Donna behave.
#### As psychologists become able to describe behavior, it is easier for them to understand and explain the behavior. This brings us to the next goal;
# Explain:
###The second goal of psychology is to explain the causes of that behavior
#### Being able to describe and explain behavior helps a psychologist to ultimately control the behavior.
# Predict:
## The third goal of psychology is to predict what behavior will come next in certain situations
### Predicting a behavior is hard, unless the behavior has already been studied
#### A psychologist can attempt to predict a behavior simply using past instances of that behavior.
# Control:
### The fourth goal (though sometimes unnecessary) is to Control an organism's  or in our example Donna's behavior but counseling and clinical psychologists try to do this with psychotherapy. Experimental and Behavioral oriented psychologists use reinforcement and punishment to control behavior.
### Controlling behavior of those with disorders can be very difficult but yet behavioral change is the work of clinical and counseling psychologists.
#### for some situations, an experimental psychologists may use drugs on an animal, etc.
#### for some situations, a recommendation from a psychologist for other forms of control may be necessary and carried out by other professionals (i.e. removal by school personnel of a child with behavioral disorders from a classroom; hospitalization by a psychiatrist to control for suicidal behavior, continued imprisonment by legal authorities for those apt to continue committing crimes, etc).

[[Category:Basics]]
[[Category:Introductions]]
[[Category:Introduction to psychology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fiction</title>
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      <text bytes="5526" sha1="84ehaife0mga1cg1ax6pop6p5omom4n" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Alice par John Tenniel 30.png|thumb|right|An illustration from Lewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'', depicting the fictional protagonist, Alice, playing a fantastical game of croquet.]]
[[File:AmericasBestComics2901.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Tarzan All Story.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Little Nemo Clowns2.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:FairbanksMarkofZorro.jpg|thumb]]
Fiction generally is a narrative form, in any medium, consisting of imaginary people, events, or places—in other words, not based strictly on history or fact. It also commonly refers, more narrowly, to written narratives in prose and often specifically novels. In film, it generally corresponds to narrative film in opposition to documentary.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Fiction]]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Resources ==
* [[Exploring science through fiction]]
* [[Fiction writing support group]]
* [[Science Fiction Challenge]]
* [[Portal:Literary Studies]]
* [[Fiction writing]]

== List of fictions ==
* Cartoons (Mickey Mouse, Winnie the Pooh, Popeye, Betty Boop, Felix the Cat, Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies, Woody Woodpecker, Rocky and Bullwinkle, The Flintstones, The Jetsons, Scooby-Doo, Mr. Magoo, Mighty Mouse, The Pink Panther, SpongeBob SquarePants, Rugrats, The Loud House, Oggy and the Cockroaches, The Simpsons, Futurama, South Park, Beavis and Butt-Head, King of the Hill, Hazbin Hotel, Johnny Test, Rick and Morty, The Powerpuff Girls, Ben 10, etc.)
* Video Games (Mario, Donkey Kong, Sonic the Hedgehog, PaRappa the Rapper, Pac-Man, Mega Man, The Legend of Zelda, Kirby, Crash Bandicoot, Rayman, Banjo Kazooie, Cuphead, Enchanted Portals, Angry Birds, Shantae, Mortal Kombat, Street Fighter, etc.)
* Comics (Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Captain Marvel / Shazam, Spider-Man, The Incredible Hulk, Garfield, The Smurfs, Peanuts, Blondie, Spirou, Marsupilami, The Katzenjammer Kids, Little Nemo in Slumberland, Yakari, Tintin, Heathcliff, Cubitus, Dilbert, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Rupert Bear, Dennis the Menace (Hank Ketcham), Dennis the Menace and Gnasher, Archie, Baby Blues, Richie Rich, Asterix, Lucky Luke, The Phantom, Buck Rogers, Flash Gordon, etc.)
* Anime / Manga (Dragon Ball, Pokémon, Doraemon, Astro Boy, Princess Knight, Maya the Bee, Vicky the Viking, Yu-Gi-Oh!, Sazae-san, Sailor Moon, Beyblade, Robotan, My Neighbor Totoro, FLCL, Tenkai Knights, Attack on Titan, Digimon, Naruto, Bleach, One Piece, My Hero Academia, Anpanman, etc.)
* Films (Star Wars, Indiana Jones, Harry Potter, Underworld, Terminator, Jurassic Park, Kill Bill, The Godfather, Back to the Future, The Chronicles of Narnia, Planet of the Apes, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, Pirates of the Caribbean, Mary Poppins, King Kong, Godzilla, Charlie Chaplin, Laurel and Hardy, The Marx Brothers, Rocky, Mad Max, Fast &amp; Furious, James Bond, Nosferatu, Puppet Master, Mission: Impossible, Gone with the Wind, Police Academy, Jaws, The Exorcist, Saw, A Nightmare on Elm Street, Friday the 13th, Cleopatra, Buster Keaton, Ben-Hur, Child's Play, The Shining, Pulp Fiction, Full Metal Jacket, Men in Black, Don Juan, The Jazz Singer, Lights of New York, The Birth of a Nation, Ted, Titanic, Avatar, Casablanca, Rambo, The Matrix, Halloween, Hellraiser, Home Alone, Marilyn Monroe, Austin Powers, The Wizard of Oz, The Three Stooges, etc.)
* Animated Films (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Cinderella, The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Pinocchio, Hercules, Lilo &amp; Stitch, The Lion King, Gulliver's Travels, Anastasia, etc.)
* Computer-Animations (Toy Story, Cars, Luxo Jr., Knick Knack, Tin Toy, Shrek, Ice Age, Frozen, Tangled, Moana, Despicable Me, Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug &amp; Cat Noir, VeggieTales, Antz, A Bug's Life, Wonder Park, Monsters, Inc., Finding Nemo, The Incredibles, etc.)
* Stop-Motion Animations (Wallace and Gromit, Shaun the Sheep, Coraline, Pingu, Roary the Racing Car, Bertha, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, The Nightmare Before Christmas, Postman Pat, Fireman Sam, Bob the Builder, The Wombles, Gumby, The PJs, Davey and Goliath, etc.)
* Literature (Frankenstein, Dracula, The Phantom of the Opera, Sherlock Holmes, Thomas &amp; Friends, Babar the Elephant, Peter Rabbit, Paddington Bear, Where's Wally?, Raggedy Ann and Andy, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Around the World in Eighty Days, The War of the Worlds, Don Quixote, Conan the Barbarian, Nancy Drew, Madeline, The Cat in the Hat, Grinch, Noddy, Tarzan, Mr. Men and Little Miss, Richard Scarry's Busytown, Pride and Prejudice, Alice in Wonderland, Hercule Poirot, Miss Marple, Zorro, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, The Three Musketeers, Wuthering Heights, etc.)
* Advertising (Ronald McDonald, M&amp;M's, Tony the Tiger, Tetley Tea Folk, Pillsbury Doughboy, Kool-Aid Man, Noid, California Raisins, Jack in the Box, Green Giant, Sonny the Cuckoo Bird, Cap'n Crunch, etc.)
* Greeting Cards (Strawberry Shortcake, Care Bears, Rainbow Brite, etc.)
* Toys (Transformers, My Little Pony, Barbie, Masters of the Universe, G.I. Joe, etc.)
* Radio Series (The Green Hornet, The Lone Ranger, The Archers, etc.)
* Television Series (Star Trek, Doctor Who, Mr. Bean, Blackadder, Tugs, Mind Your Language, Monty Python, Between the Lions, The X-Files, Seinfeld, Game of Thrones, Sesame Street, The Muppets, Sam &amp; Cat, The Bill, Benny Hill, Cops, Jackass, Happy Days, The Munsters, The Addams Family, As Time Goes By, Family Ties, Fawlty Towers, ALF, The Dukes of Hazzard, etc.)

== See Also ==
* [[Wikipedia: Fiction]]
* [[Wikibooks: Writing Adolescent Fiction]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Reading]]</text>
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    <title>Comparative law and justice/Finland</title>
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      <text bytes="39355" sha1="87wl5k1buisoz6cwpbbzk64atet5olt" xml:space="preserve">Part of the [[Comparative law and justice]] Wikiversity Project
{{Comparative law and justice project|region=Europe}}

== Basic Information ==
[[Image:Finland-CIA_WFB_Map.png|thumb|200px|left|Map of Finland.]]

Finland is a country located in northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden to the west, Russia to the east, Norway to the north, and by the Baltic Sea to the south. Finland as a whole is 338,145 sq km, 34,330 sq km of which are bodies of water.&lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt; As of July 2009, there were approximately 5,250,000 people inhabiting Finland. Finland is slightly smaller than Germany or the U.S. state of Montana.&lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Country has 1,250 miles of coastline and its national boundaries extend 12 nautical miles from the coast.&lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;The sub-arctic country stays relatively cool, but does not drop as low as many of the surrounding countries. The Temperature in Finland stay more mild because because of the massive numbers of lakes scattered throughout the country, as well as the Baltic Sea, and the north Atlantic current.&lt;ref&gt;Finnish Meteorological Institute. “Finlands Climate”. Weather and Climate, 12/02/2009 http://www.fmi.fi/weather/climate.html&lt;/ref&gt; The Approximate average temperature in the winter is around ten degrees Celsius.&lt;ref&gt;Finnish Meteorological Institute. “Finlands Climate”. Weather and Climate, 12/02/2009 http://www.fmi.fi/weather/climate.html&lt;/ref&gt; Currently, there are environmental problems with air pollution, acid rain, and water pollution from industrial wastes that are threatening the wildlife.&lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt; The national animal of Finland is the Brown bear, the national bird is the Whooper swan, and the national fish is the european perch.&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. 11/30/2009. “List of National Animals”. Finland, 12/02/2009
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_animals&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Image:Flag_of_Finland.svg|border|thumb|300px|right|The Finnish National Flag.]]

'''Helsinki-''' Helsinki is the capital city of Finland and is located on the southern coast of Finland, just north of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki is home to around 560,000 residents and is rapidly growing.&lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt; Helsinki is also noted for being the most northern capital on the European continent.&lt;ref&gt;The Central Intelligence agency. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;

==Age &amp; Gender==

Out of 5,250,275 inhabitants, the median age is about 42 years. For males, the age is slightly younger than 42 years and for females, the age is slightly older. When broken into age brackets, a majority of the inhabitants, 66.8%, fall in to ages 15-64. The ratio of males to females is very close to equal until you get up into the older ages.&lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;

*0-14 years: 16.4% (male 438,425/female 422,777)
*15-64 years: 66.8% (male 1,773,495/female 1,732,792)
*65 years and over: 16.8% (male 357,811/female 524,975)&lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;

----

===Religions, Ethnicities &amp; Languages===
'''Religions-'''In Finland as of 1923, the citizens have had a right to choose which ever religion they desired. There are two national churches of Finland. &lt;ref&gt;Expat-finland. 2009. “Religion in Finland &amp; Places of Worship”. Finland, 12/02/2009,http://www.expat-finland.com/living_in_finland/religion.html
&lt;/ref&gt;The two most popular churches in Finland are actually the two national churches of the country, the Lutheran Church of Finland and the Orthodox Church of Finland. Other notable religions that are practiced in Finland are Catholicism, Judaism, Anglican, and Islam.&lt;ref&gt;Expat-finland. 2009. “Religion in Finland &amp; Places of Worship”. Finland, 12/02/2009, http://www.expat-finland.com/living_in_finland/religion.html&lt;/ref&gt;


*&lt;u&gt;Lutheran Church of Finland&lt;/u&gt; 82.5%
*&lt;u&gt;Orthodox Church&lt;/u&gt; 1.1%
*&lt;u&gt;Other Christian&lt;/u&gt; 1.1%
*&lt;u&gt;Other&lt;/u&gt; 0.1%
*&lt;u&gt;None&lt;/u&gt; 15.1% &lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;
----
'''Ethnicities-'''The citizens of Finland are referred to as Finns, and they make up a large majority of the Country's population. &lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;There is a relatively small percentage of the neighboring nation's peoples inhabiting the land. The Sweden boarders Finland in the north and is just across the Gulf of Bothnia. Russians share a boarder with Finland on the eastern portion of the country and they account for a relatively small portion of the population. Estonians are from the south of Finland, across the Gulf of Finland. The Romani people (gypsies) first came to Finland from Sweden. The Sami people are the native people of northern Europe. &lt;ref&gt;The University of Connecticut. 1997. “Land Rights, Linguistic Rights, and Cultural Autonomy for the Finnish Sami People, 12/02/2009, http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/SEEJ/sami1.html&lt;/ref&gt;Sami people are mostly located in Norway and Sweden, while a small portion are located in Finland and Russia. Since the 1980s, the Sami people have taken big steps with the Finnish government to help establish certain rights, such as the right to develop and maintain their own language and culture.&lt;ref&gt;The University of Connecticut. 1997. “Land Rights, Linguistic Rights, and Cultural Autonomy for the Finnish Sami People, 12/02/2009, http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/SEEJ/sami1.html&lt;/ref&gt;

*&lt;u&gt;Finn&lt;/u&gt; 93.4%
*&lt;u&gt;Swede&lt;/u&gt; 5.6%
*&lt;u&gt;Russian&lt;/u&gt; 0.5%
*&lt;u&gt;Estonian&lt;/u&gt; 0.3%
*&lt;u&gt;Roma&lt;/u&gt; (Gypsy) 0.1%
*&lt;u&gt;Sami&lt;/u&gt; 0.1% &lt;ref&gt;The Central Intelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,'' https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html,12/02/2009&lt;/ref&gt;

----
'''Languages-''' Finland has two national languages, Finnish and Swedish. In the 1990s the indigenous Sami people have established the right to maintain their own language. Also Finnish Romani and Finnish Sign Language are recognized in the constitution.

==Health &amp; Education==
'''Health-'''When compared to other thriving nations like the United States and the United Kingdom, Finland is a considerably healthy country. The average life span of the total population is approximately 79 years, which ranks among the top 40 countries in the world. &lt;ref&gt;The Central Intelligence agency. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Nation Master. 2009. “Finland”. Europe, 12/02/2009, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/fi-finland&lt;/ref&gt;
*About 22 % of the citizens are daily smokers which ranks 25th most of the top 30 countries.
*There is a high rate of heart disease (143.8 per 100,000) which ranks 5th most of the top 26 countries.
*About 13 % of the population in Finland is obese which ranks 15th most of the top 28 countries.
*There is a high rate of suicides (43.4 per 100,000) which ranks 9th most of the top 80 countries.
*There is .1% of the population that is living with HIV/AIDS which ranks 33rd lowest out of the top 170 countries.&lt;ref&gt;Nation Master. 2009. “Finland”. Europe, 12/02/2009, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/fi-finland&lt;/ref&gt;

There are some categories the Finland ranks very well among the world and there are others that they do not rank so high. For the most part Finland is in the middle to top of most of the health statistics that are reported. 

----
'''Education-'''There is a section of the Finnish constitution devoted to education.

'''Section 16 - Educational rights-'''&quot;Everyone has the right to basic education free of charge. Provisions on the duty to receive education are laid down by an Act. The public authorities shall, as provided in more detail by an Act, guarantee for everyone equal opportunity to receive other educational services in accordance with their ability and special needs, as well as the opportunity to develop themselves without being prevented by economic hardship. The freedom of science, the arts and higher education is guaranteed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

This section of the constitution devoted to education allows Finland to rank in the top countries when it comes to education. After the age of 15, the Literacy rate is 100% and everyone can read and write. &lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;Having a 100% literacy rate is the highest of the world, and only several other countries have accomplished this. Finland Ranks 9th among the top 100 countries in the world by having an average of 10 years of school for adults in the country.&lt;ref&gt;Nation Master. 2009. “Finland”. Europe, 12/02/2009, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/fi-finland&lt;/ref&gt;

The basic education in Finland begins at age seven and ends at age sixteen and the students can attend any school in their designated district. &lt;ref&gt;EDU.fi. 03/02/2009. “The Education system of Finland.” EDU.fi in English, 12/02/2009, http://www.edu.fi/english/SubPage.asp?path=500,4699&lt;/ref&gt; Finland has two national languages, which means that the people who speak Swedish as a first language have the right to learn in the schooling system in Swedish. &lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; The main goal of the Finnish schooling system is to provide a high level education for everyone. The key terms of the Finnish school system are: quality, efficiency, equity and internationalization. &lt;ref&gt;EDU.fi. 03/02/2009. “The Education system of Finland.” EDU.fi in English, 12/02/2009, http://www.edu.fi/english/SubPage.asp?path=500,4699&lt;/ref&gt;The focus and emphasis that Finland puts on the schooling system allows the country to remain at the top the ranks in the world for being and intelligent country.&lt;ref&gt;Nation Master. 2009. “Finland”. Europe, 12/02/2009, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/fi-finland&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Colleges &amp; Universities-'''Finland Offers 20+ Colleges and Universities&lt;ref&gt;Colleges.com.2005. “Colleges and Universities-Finland.”, 12/02/2009, http://web.mit.edu/cdemello/www/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;

*Åbo Akademi University
*Häme Polytechnic
*Helsinki Business Polytechnic
*Helsinki School of Economics
*Helsinki University of Technology
*Lahti Polytechnic
*Lappeenranta University of Technology
*Oulu Institute of Tecnology
*Satakunta Polytechnic
*Sibelius Academy
*Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Finland
*Tampere Institute of Technology
*Tampere University of Technology
*University of Art and Design Helsinki
*University of Helsinki
*University of Joensuu
*University of Jyväskylä
*University of Kuopio
*University of Oulu
*University of Tampere
*University of Turku
*University of Vaasa

==Brief History==
[[Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Finland.svg|thumb|200px|left|The Finnish Coat of Arms.]]

Finland was part of Sweden until 1809, when it became a grand duchy, part of the Russian Empire. &lt;!-- odd statements and associated ref removed, facts substituted --&gt; In 1917, Finland became a completely independent country. During World War II Finland was able to hold off a soviet invasion. After the end of World War II, Finland and the Soviet Union signed a peace treaty. In 1995 Finland became a member of the European Union. &lt;ref&gt;BBC. 2009. “Time: Finland.” A chronology of key events:, 12/02/2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1032683.stm&lt;/ref&gt; .&lt;!-- Subjective and not backed by an argument, edited --&gt;

==Crime Rates &amp; Public Opinion==
Crime rates in Finland are low and violent crime is uncommon. The most common criminal threat is petty street crime such as pickpocketing.&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State. 10/04/2009. “Finland International Travel Information.” https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/international-travel/International-Travel-Country-Information-Pages/Finland.html&lt;/ref&gt;

*Ranked 58th highest in murders with only 132.
*Ranked 53rd highest in robberies with a little over 2,000
*Ranked 6th highest percentage of Assault victims with about 2.1%&lt;ref&gt;Nation Master. 2009. “Finland”. Europe, 12/02/2009, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/fi-finland&lt;/ref&gt;

These statistics are some of the highlights and low points of the Finland. The part of policing that needs to be focused on the most is recruiting. Finland has the lowest number of law enforcement and the total number of crimes is correlated with that. There are not many problems with robberies and murders when compared to other countries, but assault and drug crimes should be the main concern for law enforcement and the country as a whole.&lt;ref&gt;Nation Master. 2009. “Finland”. Europe, 12/02/2009, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/fi-finland&lt;/ref&gt;

In terms of reporting crimes, there may be numbers that are not truly accurate because they are not reported. For example, sexual assault is a crime that maybe some people are ashamed to report so it will go unreported. Small cases of theft might go unreported because they are small and insignificant. Crime rates will never truly be completely accurate because not everything is reported.

*112 is the Finnish Equivalent to the U.S. &quot;911&quot; &lt;ref&gt;U.S. Department of State. 10/20/2009. “Finland.” Country Specific Information, 12/02/2009, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1115.html&lt;/ref&gt;

==Elections==
Finland is constitutional parliamentary republic. While the President is the head of state, the Government lead by the Prime Minister has most of the power, as long as it is backed by a majority in the parliament.

&lt;u&gt;'''Parliment-'''&lt;/u&gt;
Finland's Parliament has 200 parliamentary seats, each of which is elected one time every fours years. They are the Legislative branch of the government. When the elections for the members of parliament are held, each citizen of Finland has one vote that they are allowed to cast for any candidate in their district (of which there are thirteen) that they feel is worthy of the position. The voters vote for specific candidates, rather then their affiliated party, but the aggregated votes for each party (or alliance) decides how many seats that party gets, according to the d'Hondt's method. Everyone who is a citizen of Finland and of age to vote is eligible to become a candidate for parliament, except for military personnel, holders of certain offices and persons under guardianship.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;    

[[Image: Tarja Halonen 2003.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The former President of The Republic, Tarja Halonen.]]
&lt;u&gt;'''President of the Republic-'''&lt;/u&gt;
The President of the Republic is the executive branch of the government. He/she is voted into office very similarly to the way that the parliament members are. There is a direct vote, meaning that each of the citizens has one vote to cast for whichever candidate they feel is best qualified. A majority of 50% is required to win the presidency and if that percentage is not reached, there is a second election between the two top candidates. In the second election, the candidate who accumulates the most votes will become the next president. In the situation that there is only one candidate, there is no election held and that person is appointed to the position without and election. To become president of the republic the candidate must be a natural born citizen, and must have the right to vote. The presidential term last for six years compared to the four year term of the parliamentary members. Each president is allowed to have no more than two presidential terms in office.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;u&gt;'''The Prime Minister-'''&lt;/u&gt;
The Goal of the Prime Minister is to run the government. The Prime Minister is selected by parliament and then appointed by the president of the republic. In order for the nominee to be approved, at least half of parliament must vote for the nominee. If the nominee does not get half of the votes, then another person will be nominated. In the event that the second nominee does not get more then half of the votes from parliament, then there is an open vote, and the member of parliament who receives the most votes is then appointed Prime Minister.&lt;ref&gt;Finnish Government. 2009. “Official Duties of the Prime Minister.” Cabinet in Office, 12/02/2009, http://www.regeringen.fi/hallitus/jasenet/paaministeri/tehtavat/en.jsp&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Political Parties-'''&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; Most candidates and most elected candidates, are nominated by a political party, of which there is a handful of established ones, and often a few new ones, which seldom gain a mandate. The established ones are (as of 2023):
*Social Democratic Party
*Center Party 
*National Coalition (Conservative) Party
*Leftist Alliance
*Swedish People's Party
*Green League
*Christian Democrats
*True Finns

===Judicial Review===
There are two courts that are in charge of Judicial Review, The Supreme Court, and the Supreme Administrative court. These are the two highest courts in the country and their goal is to make sure that the rights of the individual are being honored as well as if the laws are correctly being enforced. The supreme administrative court deals with administrative issues, and the Supreme Court deals with everything else. In addition, a standing non-political committee of the parliament decides on the constitutionality of proposed legislation, and the parliament itself can act as a court on misconduct involving certain office holders, such as ministers. There is one other form for judicial Review in Finland, and that is the President of the Republic can grant a pardon for any crimes charged to a defendant.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

==Courts and Criminal Law== 
&lt;u&gt;In Finland there are seven different type of courts:&lt;/u&gt;
*The Supreme Court
*The Supreme Administrative Court
*The District Courts
*The Courts of Appeal
*The Administrative Courts
*The Market Court
*The Labour Court
*The Insurance Court &lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;


The Supreme Court is responsible for civil, commercial, and criminal issues that arise to the Supreme Court. The Administrative Supreme Court is responsible for administrative matters that arise at the highest level. The other courts that are listed are the highest level of their expertise and are specially designated to focus on one area of law. In the highest court rooms, the Supreme and Supreme Administrative courts; there is a president of the court with a handful of justices present. There is a minimum of five justices that need to be present to hear a case and make a decision about what will happen to the defendant.&lt;ref&gt;http://web.archive.org/web/20071202040845/www.helsinkiregion.com/why_in_helsinki/&lt;/ref&gt;

The job of the prosecutors in criminal cases is to make sure that the defendant is being charged with a penalty that is equivalent to the crime that he committed. On the other side of the court room, there are defense lawyers both private and public. If the defendant can not afford a lawyer, a public one will be issued. The defense lawyers are trying to aid the defendant. The sole purpose of the judges is to enforce the laws. When prosecutors are examining the police evidence, they determine if there are ground to try the defendant on any charges. &lt;ref&gt;Judicial System. 09/18/2009. “Judicial System in Finland.” 12/02/2009, http://www.oikeus.fi/8108.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

The Constitution contains several personal rights that citizens are entitled to when it comes to the courts system. 
* A fair trial
* Good public administration 
* Open proceedings 
* The right to be heard
* The right to receive a reasoned decision 
* The right to appeal against the decision &lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Inquisitorial-'''Finland's style of procedural law is Inquisitorial. There are police investigations that are carried out when a crime occurs. Depending on the severity of the crime different prosecutors will deeply examine the evidence to decide if there is even enough to try the defendant on any charges. In some circumstances, if there is not enough evidence, the defendant will not even be tried. The prosecutors depend on careful investigations to determine the guilt.

===Punishment===
In a court case, the prosecutors are trying to establish if is enough evidence to make a case. While the case is being heard, the judges are trying to enfore the law as well as they can. There are several punishments that are given out during court cases. 
*Imprisonment 
*Fine(s)
*Fixed-sum fine 
*Community service
In some cases, community service can take the place of imprisonment for anything up to 8 months. The community service is helping with various non-profit organizations. In the cases of juveniles where they can not afford to pay a fine, and the community service being too much for them, they are supervised while worked and put onto an education plan. This shows how committed that Finland is to education, by trying to get troubled young individuals back on track and in school.&lt;ref&gt;Judicial System. 09/18/2009. “Judicial System in Finland.” 12/02/2009, http://www.oikeus.fi/8108.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

For imprisonment, there is a minimum time of 14 days and a maximum time of 12 years that you can stay in prison. After the fixed sentences, there are lifetime sentences. There are chances for parole under some circumstances, and the only way that a person with a life time sentence can be released is by a presidential pardon. &lt;ref&gt;Judicial System. 09/18/2009. “Judicial System in Finland.” 12/02/2009, http://www.oikeus.fi/8108.htm&lt;/ref&gt;


*Corporal Punishment was abolished in Finland because it was deemed Unlawful by the constitution.&lt;ref&gt;Finland. “Lawfulness of Corporal Punishment.” 12/02/09, http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/finland.html&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;


'''Prisoners-'''
Finland ranks on the lower end of total number of prisoners. 
* Ranked 108th out of 160 countries with a little over 3,000 inmates
* Ranked 113th out of 164 countries with 71 inmates per 100,000 citizens.
&lt;ref&gt;Nation Master. 2009. “Finland”. Europe, 12/02/2009, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/fi-finland&lt;/ref&gt;

==Legal Personnel==
'''Judges-'''Judges are appointed by the president of the republic and the must be tenured before they can be voted it. They must also have a Degree in law from a university. Like the Supreme Court judges, the Prosecutors in the Supreme Court are also appointed by the President of the Republic. The prosecution team is led by the &quot;prosecutor-general&quot; or the highest prosecutor.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Brochures of the Ministry of Justice. “Dissolution of Marriage.” 12/02/2009, http://www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Julkaisut/Esitteet/Avioliittolaki/Avioliitonpurkaminen&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Prosecutors-''' Like the judges, the Prosecutors in the Supreme Court are also appointed by the President of the Republic. The prosecution team is led by the &quot;prosecutor-general&quot; or the highest prosecutor. Under The prosecutor-general, there are state prosecutors that sort through evidence and decided whether the country has grounds to pursue a court case. Local Prosecutors of selected by the Prosecutor-general. The local prosecutors Examine evidence from prior police investigation and determine whether to pursue the case or decide not to prosecute.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Advocates &amp; Legal Aid-'''There are public defenders that are provided by the state, however The defendants in the cases are not required to have legal aid and are able to defend themselves. The amount the defendant has to pay the public defenders is determined by a percentage of the total income that the defendant earns. They defendant also has the choice to provided his/her own private legal aid.&lt;ref&gt;The Brochures of the Ministry of Justice. “Dissolution of Marriage.” 12/02/2009, http://www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Julkaisut/Esitteet/Avioliittolaki/Avioliitonpurkaminen&lt;/ref&gt;

When the judges are elected, they are a judge for life with a forced retirement age of 70. &lt;ref&gt;http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/finland.htm&lt;/ref&gt; The Lawyers are required to attend a school for a formal degree and they are also required to pass a BAR exam which licenses them to be a lawyer. &lt;ref&gt;http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/finland.htm&lt;/ref&gt;


===Law Enforcement===
The Finnish law enforcement system can easily be broken down; there is the Police Department of the Ministry of the Interior functions which is the main source of authority in Finland. That department is in command of the National Bureau of Investigation, the National Traffic Police, the Security Police, the Police College of Finland, the Police Technical Center, the Helsinki Police Department, and the 24 local police departments are under the command of The Police Department of the Ministry of the Interior functions.&lt;ref&gt;Finnish Police. 2009. “Finish Police.” Police, 12/02/2009, http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/463299BD6B34B9A8C2256AEE0029E643?opendocument&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/51AB1EDFFA353429C2256BB8003F8663?opendocument&lt;/ref&gt; This group of Law Enforcement teams can be categorized as Centralized Multiple Coordinated system under the taxonomy of police structures. Each of the groups has a specific task and category of law enforcement to deal with.

*The National Bureau of Investigation- This task force focuses on organized crime and professional crime. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/51AB1EDFFA353429C2256BB8003F8663?opendocument&lt;/ref&gt;
*The National Traffic Police- This Task force focuses on.. well.. traffic.
*The Security Police- This task force focuses on all and any criminal activity that is a threat to the national security of Finland. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/51AB1EDFFA353429C2256BB8003F8663
opendocument&lt;/ref&gt;
*The Police College of Finaland- This task force is responsible recruiting, researching, and training Police candidates. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/51AB1EDFFA353429C2256BB8003F8663?opendocument&lt;/ref&gt;
*The Police Technical Center- This task force is responsible for acquiring new equipment and supplying the police with better technology. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/51AB1EDFFA353429C2256BB8003F8663?opendocument&lt;/ref&gt;
*The Helsinki Police Department- This Task Force is directly under the Police Department of the Ministry of the Interior functions and along with being a local police department, has a few other duties. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/51AB1EDFFA353429C2256BB8003F8663?opendocument&lt;/ref&gt;


The Police officers use badges to distinguish their rank.  These badges can be located on their collar, hat, or shoulder.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.police.fi/poliisi/home.nsf/pages/C5FBD4CBB18744DAC2256BB800400386?opendocument&lt;/ref&gt;

'''OVERALL POLICE DUTIES'''
*&quot;Under the Police Act, the function of the police is to secure judicial and social order, to maintain public order and security, to prevent and investigate crimes, and to submit cases to prosecutors for decision (consideration of charges).&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;


The Military is a fairly new concept for finland. It was formed during the 1917 revolution in Russia to calm the situation. The Finnish military consists of an Army, Navy, and Air force. &lt;ref&gt;The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,''12/02/2009, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html&lt;/ref&gt;

===Family Law===
'''Who can marry?'''
*Anyone over the age of 18 who is not already presently married.
*There are also exceptions for parties under the age of 18 that only can be granted by the ministry of justice&lt;ref&gt;The Brochures of the Ministry of Justice. “Dissolution of Marriage.” 12/02/2009, http://www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Julkaisut/Esitteet/Avioliittolaki/Avioliitonpurkaminen&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Marriage-'''There are both Civil marriage ceremonies as well as religious ceremonies. Before a marriage takes place, a request for and examination for impediments must be place and carried out by the local register office, or by the church that you plan on being married in. The examination for impediments  is simply like a background check to make sure that the two applicants for marriage do not have a parent-child relationship, a sibling relationship, a half sibling relationship, uncle/aunt-niece/nephew relationship, or an adoptive parent-child relationship.&lt;ref&gt;The Brochures of the Ministry of Justice. “Dissolution of Marriage.” 12/02/2009, http://www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Julkaisut/Esitteet/Avioliittolaki/Avioliitonpurkaminen&lt;/ref&gt;
* In some cases with permission from the ministry of justice, there can be a marriage with the uncle/aunt-niece/nephew relationship, or an adoptive parent-child relationship.&lt;ref&gt;The Brochures of the Ministry of Justice. “Dissolution of Marriage.” 12/02/2009, http://www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Julkaisut/Esitteet/Avioliittolaki/Avioliitonpurkaminen&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Divorce-'''The two parties must first approach divorce in district court. After they first approach of divorce, the case is postponed until an undetermined date called a reconsideration period. They courts are giving the two parties the chance to think things over. After this reconsideration period of at least six months, a divorce can be granted it both parties want dissolve the marriage. Another way that the two parties can be divorced is if they live separated for two straight years. During the divorce hearings, there are also talks about child support payments or payments to spouse to survive, the custody of the children as well as visiting rights of the child, also which spouse is allowed to stay in the current house.&lt;ref&gt;The Brochures of the Ministry of Justice. “Dissolution of Marriage.” 12/02/2009, http://www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Julkaisut/Esitteet/Avioliittolaki/Avioliitonpurkaminen&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Inheritance-'''Inheritances are items that can be taxed if the decedent or a beneficiary lived in Finland at the time of death. The tax is determined by how much the estate that is inherited is valued. In terms are marriages, there are special agreements that you can make that determine that if you one spouse passes away, the other is not entitled to everything that that the deceased spouse owned. &lt;ref&gt;The Brochures of the Ministry of Justice. “Dissolution of Marriage.” 12/02/2009, http://www.om.fi/en/Etusivu/Julkaisut/Esitteet/Avioliittolaki/Avioliitonpurkaminen&lt;/ref&gt;

===Social Inequality===
[[Image:Sami flag.svg|thumb|150px|left|The Sami Flag.]]
The Social Inequality in Finland is present with the Sami and Romani (gypsy) people. The Sami people are the indigenous people of the land and are not treated fairly. The Sami have just recently made strides in the last 15 years to get the rights that they deserve. Section 17 of the Finnish Constitution states that &quot;The Sami, as an indigenous people, as well as the Roma and other groups, have the right to maintain and develop their own language and culture. Provisions on the right of the Sami to use the Sami language before the authorities are laid down by an Act. The rights of persons using sign language and of persons in need of interpretation or translation aid owing to disability shall be guaranteed by an Act.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. 2004. “Finland’s’ Romani people.”, 12/02/2009, http://www.stm.fi/c/document_library/get_file?folderId=28707&amp;name=DLFE-3777.pdf&amp;title=Finland_s_Romani_People___Finitiko_Romaseele_en.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

===Human Rights===
Finland's fundamental rights are protected by their own constitution. As of the latest update in 2007, their constitution is comprised of 13 chapters, each of which goes into the rights and rules of the citizens as well as the government.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

Chapter two of the Finnish Constitution is about basic rights and liberties and 23 sections of that deal with individual rights and liberties of the citizens.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

'''&lt;u&gt;Rights and Civil Liberties:&lt;/u&gt;'''
The Right to equality, The right to life, personal liberty and integrity, The principle of legality in criminal cases, Freedom of movement, The right to privacy, Freedom of religion and conscience, Freedom of expression and right of access to information, Freedom of assembly and freedom of association, Electoral and participatory rights, Protection of property, Educational rights, Right to one's language and culture, The right to work and the freedom to engage in commercial activity, The right to social security, Responsibility for the environment, Protection under the law, Protection of basic rights and liberties, and Basic rights and liberties in situations of emergency.&lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;
By making observations and comparisons the rights look as if many of them are paralleled with those of the United States Bill Of Rights. There is one right that the citizens have that sounds a little obscure, Responsibility for the environment.

*&quot;Nature and its biodiversity, the environment and the national heritage are the responsibility of everyone.
The public authorities shall endeavour to guarantee for everyone the right to a healthy environment and for
everyone the possibility to influence the decisions that concern their own living environment.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;The Ministry of Justice, Finland. 6/11/1999. “The Constitution of Finland.” Unofficial Translation 12/02/2009, http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; 

This idea may sound a little strange but if you look at it closely, the country is trying to promote a clean environment that everyone can enjoy. This right is something that should be taken into consideration by the world as a whole in an effort to have better living conditions.

'''&lt;u&gt;Equality&lt;/u&gt;''' 
*&quot;Everyone is equal before the law. No one shall, without an acceptable reason, be treated differently from other persons on the ground of sex, age, origin, language, religion, conviction, opinion, health, disability or other reason that concerns his or her person. Children shall be treated equally and as individuals and they shall be allowed to influence matters pertaining to themselves to a degree corresponding to their level of development. Equality of the sexes is promoted in societal activity and working life, especially in the determination of pay and the other terms of employment, as provided in more detail by an Act.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

Equality is the first thing that is noted in the right and civil liberties chapter and it is obviously very important to the Finnish citizens. It is interesting to note, that they even give equality rights in some circumstances to children. An important thing that is noted in this act is that there is equality of the sexes especially when it comes to pay rate and job opportunities. Looking back again it seems that these rights parallel those of the United States.

==Travel Info==
For travel information visit

http://www.finland.org/Public/Default.aspx

http://www.finland.org/Public/Default.aspx

http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1115.html#safety

==Works Cited==
&lt;ref&gt;http://web.archive.org/web/20110615074837/http://www.ofm.fi/intermin/vvt/home.nsf/files/VV2008_englanti/$file/VV2008_englanti.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;references/&gt;

{{cite web
| title = The Central Itelligence agencey. 2009. &quot;Finland.&quot; ''The World Fact Book,'' 
| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fi.html
| date = 24 Sep 2009
| accessdate = 2 Dec 2009}}
{{cite web
| title = Britannica Encyclopedia
| url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/207424/Finland/26122/Religion
| date = 24 Sep 2009
| accessdate = }}

[[Category:Finland]]</text>
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|name=Economics
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      <comment>Added a access link to the page of the freecodecamp a non-profitable organization that teaches the computer science for free with certifications</comment>
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      <text bytes="3536" sha1="l7egamh606gpjk01p7vf334i7df0abw" xml:space="preserve">==Resources==
Know any good resources for scholars of this topic? Good open source software sources for computer science education are welcome. Add them here!

'''On-line:'''

* [https://github.com/ossu/computer-science Open Source Computer Science Degree] Collection of free resources from third-level institutions, including many listed below, assembled to be equivalent to an undergraduate Computer Science degree.
* [https://cs50.harvard.edu/x/2021/ CS50 Introduction to Computer Science] Offered by Harvard College; One of the best introductory courses that is offered as OpenCourseWare; Video lectures; Assignments; Virtual Machines that have open source software required for doing the course; Automated testing of code written by students.
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/index.htm Online Courses at MIT, complete with etextbooks]
* [http://www.aduni.org Complete and On-line Creative Commons course in Computer Science] It was designed to be equivalent to the MIT Undergraduate Course in Computer Science but condensed into 12 months. Many of the Lecturers featured in the video are MIT lecturers who wanted to offer free education.
* [http://socr.ucla.edu/ Statistics Online Computational Resource (SOCR)]

* Free online courses offered by Stanford University beginning January 2012:
** [http://www.saas-class.org/ Software Engineering for Software as a Service (no longer available)]
** [https://www.coursera.org/course/ml Machine Learning]
** [http://www.crypto-class.org/ Cryptography]
** [https://www.coursera.org/course/nlp Natural Language Processing]
** [http://www.hci-class.org/ Human-Computer Interaction]
** [http://www.pgm-class.org/ Probabilistic Graphical Models]
** [http://www.algo-class.org/ Design and Analysis of Algorithms I]

* [https://nptel.ac.in/course.html NPTEL] Free online courses(video lectures, presentation, and notes) by IITs and IISc, India.
* [http://inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs10/ CS10 The Beauty and Joy of Computing] Offered by UC Berkeley EECS department; An introductory computer programming course that is offered using the visual programming approach; Video lectures; Reading materials from across the web; Access to their learning management system is not freely available to take tests but most of the content is available publicly.
* [http://www.codecademy.com/ Codecademy] Teaches HTML, Javascript, Python, Ruby, jQuery, and PHP in an interactive manner, awarding badges for completing units, increasing your streak, and exercises completed.
* [https://www.sololearn.com/ SoloLearn] Another resource for learning how to code HTML, Javascript, Python, and more for free. Share your coding projects with ours, and interact with the SoloLearn community to see what is being built by other brilliant coders. Available iOS and Android smartphone applications are available for download for free.
* [https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/cs Khan Academy Computer Science] Teaches basic coding skills using Javascript.
* [https://codility.com/programmers/lessons Codility Lessons] Intermediate-advanced programming lessons from Iterations to Dynamic Programming in the form of a PDF reading material and a few logic problems to go with each lesson. Available in 16 different programming languages.
* [https://www.reddit.com/r/AskComputerScience/ Ask Computer Science sub-Reddit]
*[https://www.freecodecamp.org/ FreeCodeCamp.org] Non profitable organization founded By Quincy Larson to teach Computer Science and related topics  with certifications.</text>
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      <comment>Added a section on healthcare provider CPR/BLS training and updated CPR guidance.</comment>
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{{education}}
Though it has been around since 1740 when the Paris Academy of Sciences recommended mouth-to-mouth for drowning victims, many people still do not know how to perform it.&lt;ref&gt;“History of cpr,” 2012&lt;/ref&gt; {{w|Cardiopulmonary resuscitation}}, better known as CPR, is a lifesaving technique employed in the event of sudden cardiac arrest. Sudden cardiac arrest occurs when an individual’s heart no longer is beating suddenly and unexpectedly. It should be noted that sudden cardiac arrest is not the same as having a heart attack. A heart attack is caused when a blockage or something else impedes blood flow in the heart and can lead to sudden cardiac arrest. Typically, an individual who suffers SCA can die within minutes if no treatment occurs.&lt;ref&gt;National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; Sudden cardiac arrest affects nearly 900 individuals in a given day. Each year, approximately 383,000 SCAs occur outside of the hospital. Eighty-eight percent of these occur in the home.&lt;ref&gt;“Cpr statistics,” 2011&lt;/ref&gt; The victim may not have a history of heart problems or a high risk of heart disease, yet can still fall prey to SCA. African Americans are almost twice as likely to experience sudden cardiac arrest as Caucasians, and are also two times less likely to survive (2011).

Because brain death can occur between eight and ten minutes due to a lack of oxygen in the brain, it is extremely important to attend immediately to an individual with SCA. Brain damage can occur within only a few minutes of sudden cardiac arrest. CPR can help keep oxygen going to the brain and other vital organs until additional help arrives.&lt;ref&gt;Mayo Clinic Staff, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; However, nearly seventy percent of people do not know how to react in an emergency in which the victim has undergone SCA, either because they do not know how to administer CPR or because they are not comfortable administering CPR. Only eight percent of individuals who fall prey to SCA outside of the hospital currently survive.&lt;ref&gt;“Cpr statistics,” 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

Why is CPR an effective skill to learn? When CPR is administered right after sudden cardiac arrest, that individual’s chances of survival can double or even triple. Sadly, only about 32 percent of individuals receive CPR from a bystander.&lt;ref&gt;“Cpr statistics,” 2011&lt;/ref&gt; Though AEDs are a more effective method of treating sudden cardiac arrest, they are not always available for use. CPR is a skill that can be used in any setting, either until an AED can be found or medical professionals arrive on the scene.

There are two different types of CPR that can be administered. It should be noted that in all forms of CPR chest compressions are advised as the beginning steps. One technique is Hands-Only CPR, which only utilizes chest compressions. This type of CPR is best for individuals who have are untrained or uncomfortable with administering CPR. Chest compressions at approximately 100 beats per minute should be performed until help arrives. In this type, no rescue breaths are used.&lt;ref&gt;Mayo Clinic Staff, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;

The second CPR technique is for the trained and comfortable individual. This technique involves beginning chest compressions (without checking the airway) for 30 compressions, then performing a rescue breath and checking the airways. This cycle continues until paramedics arrive on the scene.&lt;ref&gt;Mayo Clinic Staff, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;

It is very easy to learn CPR. In fact, there are many videos online which show the Hands-Only CPR technique. The American Heart Association has many videos, such as its “Two Steps to Stayin’ Alive” video, which teaches Hands-Only CPR to the tune of “Stayin’ Alive” by the BeeGees.&lt;ref&gt;“Cpr statistics,” 2011&lt;/ref&gt; The American Heart Association is responsible for training over 12 million people per year, including both health care professionals and the general population.&lt;ref&gt;“Cpr &amp; sudden,” 2010&lt;/ref&gt; The American Red Cross also provides certification courses in CPR and AED training. With these courses, an individual can be CPR/AED certified for two years. The American Heart Association does not have a minimum age requirement for learning CPR. The ability to perform CPR is based upon an individual’s strength rather than age. Some studies have shown that children as young as nine years old can learn CPR (2010).

=== Healthcare Provider CPR Training ===
Healthcare workers are often required to complete a higher level of CPR training than the general public. While basic CPR courses may focus on adult CPR, AED use, and choking response, healthcare provider courses usually include Basic Life Support, often called BLS&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/resources/articles/difference-between-bls-and-cpr|title=Difference Between BLS and CPR Certification {{!}} Red Cross|website=www.redcross.org|language=en|access-date=2026-07-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

[[wikipedia:Basic_life_support|BLS]] training is designed for clinical and public safety settings where responders may need to provide CPR as part of a team. It commonly includes adult, child, and infant CPR, AED use&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/bls-training/bls-for-healthcare-providers|title=BLS for Healthcare Providers Course {{!}} Red Cross|website=Red Cross|language=en|access-date=2026-07-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;, rescue breathing, airway support, high-quality chest compressions, and coordinated team response&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://1sttreasurecharacenters.com/blogs/cpr-certification-georgia-for-healthcare-workers|title=CPR Certification in Georgia for Healthcare Workers|last=Marketing|first=Clients|date=2026-06-19|website=1st Treasure Chara Centers|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Healthcare students, nurses, nursing assistants, medical assistants, emergency medical personnel, and other patient-facing workers may be asked to keep this training current for employment, clinical placement, or licensing-related requirements&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/bls-training/bls-for-healthcare-providers|title=BLS for Healthcare Providers Course {{!}} Red Cross|website=Red Cross|language=en|access-date=2026-07-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Hands-on practice is an important part of healthcare CPR training because correct compression depth, compression rate, full chest recoil&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://cpr.heart.org/en/resuscitation-science/high-quality-cpr|title=High Quality CPR|website=cpr.heart.org|language=en|access-date=2026-07-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;, limited interruptions, and proper AED use affect CPR quality. Current CPR guidance commonly emphasizes a chest compression rate of 100 to 120 compressions per minute&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://cpr.heart.org/en/resources/what-is-cpr|title=What is CPR|website=cpr.heart.org|language=en|access-date=2026-07-08}}&lt;/ref&gt; for adults, along with adequate compression depth and minimal pauses.

Many healthcare CPR or BLS completion cards are valid for two years, although workers should confirm the exact requirement with their employer, school, or clinical program. Some organizations accept blended learning formats&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://cpr.heart.org/en/courses/basic-life-support-course-options|title=Basic Life Support (BLS) Course Options|website=cpr.heart.org|language=en|access-date=2026-07-08}}&lt;/ref&gt; that combine online coursework with an in-person skills session, while others may require fully in-person skills validation.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{URL|1=http://cprstatistics.net/events/cpr-statistics/ |2=Cpr &amp; sudden cardiac arrest (sca) fact sheet. (2010, April 26)}}
* {{URL|1=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/CPRAndECC/WhatisCPR/CPRFactsandStats/CPR-Statistics_UCM_307542_Article.jsp |2=Cpr statistics. (2011, June)}}
* {{URL|1=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/CPRAndECC/WhatisCPR/CPRFactsandStats/History-of-CPR_UCM_307549_Article.jsp |2=History of cpr. (2012, September 14)}}
* {{URL|1=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/first-aid-cpr/FA00061 |2=Mayo Clinic Staff. (2012, February 07). Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (cpr): First aid.}} 
* {{URL|1=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/ |2=National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. (2011, April 01). What is sudden cardiac arrest?}}

{{CourseCat}}

[[Category:Medical School Program]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
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== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260708.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260708.pdf|B]] ||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tectonic hazards</title>
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      <text bytes="912" sha1="mlzyo6wbliloo8pxavory9izffbf8py" xml:space="preserve">{{environmental science}}
This resource is about earthquakes, volcanoes, geysers, and tsunamis.

==Contents==
[[File:37 - Tremblement de terre - Août 2007.JPG|thumb|300px|Effects of the 15 Aug. 2007 Peruvian earthquake of a 8.0 magnitude.]] 
*[[/Earthquake/]]
*[[/Earthquake engineering/]]
*[[/Earthquake engineering research/]]
*[[/Earthquake Engineering Research Institute/]]
*[[/Earthquake loss estimation/]]
*[[/Earthquake simulation/]]
*[[/Seismic fitness/]]
*[[/Seismic load/]]
*[[/Seismogram/]]
*[[/Seismometer/]]
*[[/Seismology/]]
*[[/Tsunami/]]
*[[NEES]]
*[[/Richter scale/]]
*[[/Seismic performance/]]
*[[/Seismic performance evaluation/]]
*[[/Seismic performance analysis/]]
*[[/Shake-table/]]
*[[/Seismic risk/]]
*[[/Seismic retrofit/]]
*[[/Seismic design/]]  
*[[/Concurrent testings/]]
{{Commonscat|Earthquakes}}

==See also==
* [[Earthquake-resistant structures]]

[[Category:Tectonic hazards| ]]</text>
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    <title>Concomitant Strabismus</title>
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[[File:Bartisch-015r-col.jpg|thumb|300px|Treatment of Strabismus by Georg Bartisch]]
In this subject students will build on concepts presented in Binocular Vision and Refraction. Students will develop an understanding of the theoretical concepts of aetiology, investigation, diagnosis and management of concominant strabismus and its sensory anomalies. Using an enquiry-based learning program, students will integrate theoretical concepts with practical instrumentation and clinical techniques to apply optical, orthoptic, medical and surgical management for concomitant horizontal deviations, amblyopia, microstrabismus and disorders of the vergence and accommodative systems in an evidence-based medical context. This subject will equip students to proceed to Incominant Strabismus and Orthoptic Clinical Practice subjects.

==Intended Learning Outcomes==

Demonstrate an apporpraite use and application of discipline specific instrumentation to investigate concomitant strabismus and sensory consequences.

Integrate information obtained from a case history and the results of a clinical investigation to differentially diagnose concomitant strabismus.

Using the best available evidence, devise a management plan and explain the prognosis for a patient diagnosed with concomitant strabismus.

==Assessment==

The assessment for this subject is as follows:

Two 30 mininute (mid-semester) written examinations (30%)

10 minute Practical/VIVA examination (end of semester) (15%)

2 hour (end of semester) written examination (55%)

''Hurdle Requirement: Both the practical examination overall and the 2 hour written examination must be passed in order to gain a pass in this subject.''

==Topics &amp; Schedule==
'''[[/Module 1: Clinical Investigations of Concomitant Strabismus/]]'''&lt;br&gt;
'''[[/Module 2: Pre-operative Investigation of Strabismus /]]'''&lt;br&gt;
'''[[/Module 3: Treatment Principles/]]'''&lt;br&gt;
'''[[/Module 4: Convergence &amp; Accommodation Disorders/]]'''&lt;br&gt;
'''[[/Module 5: Exo-deviations/]]'''&lt;br&gt;
'''[[/Module 6: Eso-deviations/]]'''&lt;br&gt;

==Learning Management System==
Students enrolled in this subject are directed to the Concomitant Strabismus [https://lms.latrobe.edu.au/course/view.php?id=32699 Learning Management System] website. 

==Acknowledgements==
This Wikiversity subject website has been developed by [http://www.latrobe.edu.au/health/about/staff/profile?uname=KKoklanis Dr Connie Koklanis] (BOrth(Hons), PhD) in consultation with Educational Designer [[User:Leighblackall|Leigh Blackall]]. Thanks go to previous La Trobe University staff in the Discipline of Orthoptics for their contribution to the material in this subject, including [http://www.aojournal.com.au/archive/tribute-associate-professor-zoran-georgievski/ Associate Professor Zoran Georgievski], Dr Julie Green, Linda Santamaria and Danielle Thorburn.

[[Category: La Trobe Health Sciences]]
[[Category: Orthoptics]]</text>
      <sha1>h3q3um2eu307w94d53ku4bm0p9qwpk7</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex analysis in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>171005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817934</id>
      <parentid>2817859</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-08T14:23:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geometric Series Examples */</comment>
      <origin>2817934</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5296" sha1="ebmmjd35z8tjhjtjyc52ot2636a4dxk" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260708.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]</text>
      <sha1>ebmmjd35z8tjhjtjyc52ot2636a4dxk</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haskell programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>203942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817959</id>
      <parentid>2816947</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-09T02:33:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lambda Calculus */</comment>
      <origin>2817959</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6273" sha1="81vn0ybnmzktdxg2kvdkb400fcobgkb" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260629.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>81vn0ybnmzktdxg2kvdkb400fcobgkb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817961</id>
      <parentid>2817959</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-09T02:34:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lambda Calculus */</comment>
      <origin>2817961</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6273" sha1="a1ko2lxif5icqlcqkc5ne0dyn6r4f5j" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260630.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>a1ko2lxif5icqlcqkc5ne0dyn6r4f5j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817963</id>
      <parentid>2817961</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-09T02:35:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lambda Calculus */</comment>
      <origin>2817963</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6273" sha1="taiwt1ev2jfj0j2w1gkzio1xesgvbhp" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260706.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>taiwt1ev2jfj0j2w1gkzio1xesgvbhp</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Algebra 1/Unit 1: Introduction To Algebra</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>217152</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Namjoel</username>
        <id>3099583</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is Algebra? */I tried to improve the variable section, but I feel like I still need to edit it to add clarity.  I tried to add more clarity to the article and add mnemonics.</comment>
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      <text bytes="24683" sha1="98fyvcydchw2y0ivh6735sgufloxmeb" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Quadratic formula.svg|thumb|right|An example of a Algebra formula (quadratic formula)]]
{{mathematics}}
{{secondary education}}
{{lesson}}
{{complete}}

'''Algebra''' (from the Arabic word &quot;al-jabr&quot; (الجبر), meaning &quot;reunion of broken parts&quot;) can feel like quite a complicated language of mathematics. However, as time goes on, completing Algebra will get easier and easier until it's a breeze. Completing Algebra takes true dedication with a worthwhile reward. This week, we will get into what Algebra is, and some warm ups (on arithmetic). Even though this may seem pointless, it is &lt;small&gt;IMPORTANT&lt;/small&gt; that you review through these warm ups and get comfortable in solving them to lay a strong foundation for understanding larger topics later on.

Without further do, let's dig right into this!
==Algebra==
===What is Algebra?===
[[File:AlgebraJournalWork11-14-16.jpg|thumb|left|You might have to do this much work for a small answer!]]In Algebra, we use letters called '''[[Variable|Variables]]''' or P'''ronumeral''' to represent quantities that are not known. Calling them Variables is the most excepted word to use in most contexts. The constant is a number that stays the same.   

Imagine you have a bag full of jellybeans on a table; with 10 green jelly beans and a unknown amount of blue jellybeans. Let's call the blue jellybeans x. Well done, this is a pronumeral they are that simple.  Now, your friend comes over, tells you there is 20 total jellybeans in the bag.    

How many blue jellybeans are there! Imagine you have a bag full of jellybeans in a jar; with 10 green jelly beans and a unknown amount of blue jellybeans. Imagine you have a 10 green jelly beans and a object covering the amount of blue jellybeans. blue jellybeans are represented with the letter x.   

# So far we know that we have 10 green jelly beans we know that the object being covered is a unknown number represented by '''Variable''' x which we are unsure of. 
# Now, your friend comes over, whispers to you there is 20 total jellybeans in the bag. 
# Here is how you do it, if 10+x=20 then we just need to keep count the numbers that are missing to get to 20  from 10. Once you get to 20 how much new numbers did you count? 


Make your own digram  to help you see the equations better it:
[[File:Digram for Variables.png|border|left|937x937px]]
here is a summery   

# 10 green jelly beans unknown amount of x cover 10+x
# Friend whispered that there are 20 jelly beans  in the bag   10+x=20
# Count the steps we take from 10 till we get to 20 

10+x

=10+10  

=10  


this is what you sould be thinking in your head or recalling without so many steps.    

10+1= 11, 10+2= 12, 10+3=13, 10+4=14, 10+5=15 10+6= 16, 10+7= 17, 10+8= 18, 10+9= 19, 10+ 10  = 20   

Well done, this is a pronumeral they are that simple you did algebra.   

The core concept of algebra is the equal sign (=). Think of an equation as a balanced scale. Whatever you do to one side, you must do to the other side to keep it balanced.   

example 10+10=20-10  don't worry about decoding the numbers it is explained below on how to decode the numbers.   

To find the unknown number, you need to find unknown number represented by x completely by itself and do it in a way that is proves you are right with big quantities of numbers. You do this by using inverse operations (doing the opposite).


the two main family's of maths are opposite in roles:
*Addition (+) and Subtraction (-) are opposites. 
* Multiplication (times*, ×) and Division÷, /) are opposites.

To work out the number of blue jellybeans using proper algebra follow these steps: 

↓-----------↓ 

x+10=20

# Identify the goal: We want x by itself the '''[[Variable|Unknown]]'''.
# See the obstacle: There is a +10 next to the x, the Known.
# Do the opposite: Now take the known and move it to the end of the opposite side, and add a  minus symbol in the middle of both knowns because we are also counting the 20 as a known.


x=20-10

Anther way of thinking about it:

Plus is married to minus so minus dose all the heavy work because plus is just bring him self to minus house from pluses house.  He is bring 10 apples with him and we show him in his girlfriends house. Minus is doing the heavy work of catering to Plus.


Do 20-10

x=10       Good job.

Checking Your Work

In maths, you should always check your work. You can do this by working if the original equation equals the same number  by adding the veriable with the constant  two together now that you know the pronumeral or variable to be. 

Does (10 + x (10) = 20)? Yes! Your answer is correct.  

'''Example two'''

In algebra, a fraction line means division. So, this equation means &quot;x (unknown number) divided by 4 equals 3.&quot;

&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{x}{4}&lt;/math&gt;  = 3
# Identify the goal: Get x by itself.
# See the obstacle: The x is being divided by 4.
# Do the opposite: The opposite of division is multiplication. Multiply both sides by 4, because whatever you do to one side you must do to the other to balance the equation. Remember about the family relationship we move the number to the other house.

x = 3*4

x=12

Check Your Work

Put 12 back into the original equation:

* Does 12 / 4 = 3?   Yes! The answer is correct.

===== '''Important notes:''' =====
* Can be called variable OR pronumeral.
* And can be any letter from a to z.
* Solving for (pronumeral here) e.g., &quot;solving for x&quot; means finding the pronumeral.

====== '''Fun Fact''' ======
The letter that is most commonly used for variables is x and the reason for this dates back to the origin of Algebra itself; Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, often called one of the main &quot;founders&quot; of Algebra you could say, used to call the unknown pronumeral &quot;'''shay'''&quot;. &quot;'''Shay&quot;''' comes from the Arabic word '''شَيْء''', which essentially means &quot;thing&quot;. When Al-Khwarizmi's works were translated to Latin in medieval Spain, &quot;shay&quot; was translated as '''&quot;xay&quot;,''' since the letter x was pronounced as &quot;sh&quot; in Spain. Later on, this word &quot;'''xay&quot;''' got abbreviated to &quot;'''x&quot;''' to represent the symbol of the unknown, so we normally use x for standard questions. For more information, visit this [https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/innoalgebra.html PBS] page.

= Algebra problems =
Solve for x.&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot; points=&quot;1/1&quot;&gt;
{''x'' − 9 = 20
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 29_3 }

{''x'' − 3 = 6
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 9_3 }

{''x'' + 5 = 15
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 10_3 }

{''x'' + 17 = 23
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 6_3 }

{4''x'' = 12
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 3_3 }

{''x''/2 = 0.5
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 1_3 }

{''x''/50 = 2
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 100_3 }

{''x''/9 = 5
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
''x''={ 45_3 }
&lt;/quiz&gt;

Seems simple, huh? Well, it will get complicated, which is why it is important for you to do some review of your arithmetic! Let's dig into that...

==Arithmetic==
[[File:Multiply 4 bags 3 marbles.svg|thumb|right|4 x 3 = 12 (multiplication)]]
'''Arithmetic''' has to deal with elementary/basic levels of math, such as division, multiplication, subtraction, and addition. Basically, just working with numbers.

This SHOULD be a level familiar with you. If you are not familiar with arithmetic math/rules, then PLEASE review through Arithmetic, as you won't survive even the 1st step of Algebra. Trust me, the basics are THAT important.
===Fractions===
[[File:Cake quarters.svg|thumb|left|A Cake with fractions]]
'''Fractions''' (from Latin ''fractus'', &quot;broken&quot;) are parts of a whole. On the left side in the image of the cake, there is only &lt;math&gt;3/4&lt;/math&gt;'s of the cake showing, the other &lt;math&gt;1/4&lt;/math&gt; has been eaten/taken away.

The number, ''3'', in &lt;math&gt;3/4&lt;/math&gt;, is what is known as a '''numerator''' (Numerator: Number at the top, tells us of how much of the number is being talked about/being used). The number, ''4'', in &lt;math&gt;3/4&lt;/math&gt;, is what is known as a '''denominator''' (Denominator: Number showing the all time total).
;
;Simplest form/reduced form
A reduced form of a fraction is a fraction that cannot be divided by any number other than 1, and the denominator is greater than 1. So &lt;math&gt;2/4&lt;/math&gt; is NOT in simplest form, since we can divide 2 and 4, by 2... which results in the following number: &lt;math&gt;1/2&lt;/math&gt;. Though, not every fraction can be divided by 2, there are fractions, such as: &lt;math&gt;5/35&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;7/21&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;30/5&lt;/math&gt;. The two first fractions are not divisible by 2, and &lt;math&gt;30/5&lt;/math&gt; can not be divided by 2 on both sides, but only on &lt;math&gt;30&lt;/math&gt;. It's important to simplify as if you were in a test, your teacher will mark your problems as incorrect if you didn't simplify your fractions. Keep in mind that simplifying a fraction into its simplest/reduced form doesn't change its value, both the original (unsimplified) fraction and its reduced form represent the same exact value/quantity. So, &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2}{4}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; represents the same quantity, a half! 

Here, we will present a few fractions for you to simplify.
====Sample problems for ''simplifying fractions'' (use ''/'' as the fraction line)====
&lt;quiz display=simple points=&quot;1/1&quot;&gt;
{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{6}{8}=&lt;/math&gt;{ 3/4_7 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{4}{60}=&lt;/math&gt;{ 1/15_7 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{30}{90}=&lt;/math&gt;{ 1/3_7 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{8}{18}=&lt;/math&gt;{ 4/9_7 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{9}{72}=&lt;/math&gt;{ 1/8_7 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{64}{46}=&lt;/math&gt;{ 32/23|1 9/23_7 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{206}{340}=&lt;/math&gt;{ 103/170_7 }
&lt;/quiz&gt;
===== Adding or Subtracting Fractions =====
[[File:Fractionsworkalgebra.PNG|thumb|right|What we just worked on, summarized]]
To simply add or subtract fractions, make sure the denominators of the fractions you are adding or subtracting are the same. If they are not, find the least common denominator (LCD). For example, if you want to add &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{4}{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{4}{6}&lt;/math&gt;, you first have to multiply the 2 in &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{4}{2}&lt;/math&gt; by '''3''', which equals '''6'''... BUT you cannot just multiply 2 only, you also have to multiply 4 by 3, since that's what you did to 2, the denominator. If you change the denominator, you have to change the numerator. ('''This step is crucial as it allows you to preserve the same value of the fraction''' but with just a different representation)

Alright, we got that out of the way, so once we have &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{12}{6}&lt;/math&gt; + &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{4}{6}&lt;/math&gt;, we can simply add. So &lt;math&gt;12&lt;/math&gt; + &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;16&lt;/math&gt;, but don't add the denominators, they stay the same. So the answer is &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{16}{6}&lt;/math&gt;, and then we simplify down to &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{8}{3}&lt;/math&gt; dividing by 2 on both the numerator and denominator. 

But... did you notice something? &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{8}{3}&lt;/math&gt;? That doesn't seem right, does it? The denominator is smaller than the numerator. When you have a fraction like this, you have to convert it to a '''mixed fraction''' (skip to [[Speak_Math_Now!/Week_1:_Introduction_To_Algebra#Improper_Fraction_--.3E_Mixed_Fraction|section 2.1.1.4]]).

===== Multiplying Fractions =====
To multiply fractions, its easiest to first simplify your fraction to simplest terms. Once you have done that, you can simply multiply the numerators and the denominators. And obviously, simplify your final product, if you can. So, we have &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{6}{8}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{2}{6}&lt;/math&gt;. You could multiply the numerators and denominators straight away and simplify at the end if you are comfortable, but to make it easier and clearer, we should simplify the fractions first. We simplify 6 and 8 by dividing both by 2, we also divide 2 and 6 by 2. So the fractions are now &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{3}{4}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{3}&lt;/math&gt;. You simply multiply those two fractions by multiplying the numerator by the numerator, and doing the same for the denominators. After completing this process, you will get a solution (in fraction form). &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{3}{4}&lt;/math&gt; × &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{3}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{3}{12}&lt;/math&gt;. 

&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{3}{12}&lt;/math&gt; is not going to be our final product, though, since we can simplify the fraction by dividing the fraction by 3, which results in &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{4}&lt;/math&gt;.

===== Dividing Fractions =====
There is an interesting twist when it comes to dividing fractions. You have to turn the fraction you want to divide by (second fraction) upside-down, also known as &quot;Keep, Change, Flip&quot; where you keep the first fraction the same, change the operation to multiplication, and replace the second fractions numerator with the denominator and the denominator with the numerator. Not only that, you have to turn the division symbol (÷) into a multiplication symbol (× or •). After that, you use your skills you learned in multiplying a fraction, and you multiply both of the fractions. Simplify if you need to.

So, &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{6}{8}&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{7}{12}&lt;/math&gt;. Change the division symbol to a multiplication symbol, and turn the fraction you want to divide by upside-down (the upside-down fraction is known as a '''reciprocal'''). So &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{6}{8}&lt;/math&gt; × (or •) &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{12}{7}&lt;/math&gt;. Multiply the numerators and denominators. The answer is &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{72}{56}&lt;/math&gt;, simplified down to &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{9}{7}&lt;/math&gt;.

===== Improper Fraction --&gt; Mixed Fraction =====
Divide the numerator by the denominator. The '''quotient''' (result of the division taking place/number above the division line) will be the whole number of the mixed fraction, while the numerator will be the remainder. The denominator remains unchanged, so don't change the denominator at all!

{{notice|If you would like to take the quiz on Fractions, please go to '''[[Speak Math Now!/Week 1: Introduction To Algebra/Fractions Quiz]]'''}}

See also: https://www.tes.com/lessons/bJieZ4sFPJbSTw/fractions-4-mixed-numbers-and-improper-fractions

===Decimals===

Ever wondered how to write 8&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{47}{100}&lt;/math&gt; as a decimal? Well, you've got the answer: 8.47! How did we get that answer? Let's look at a few more and maybe you'll see the pattern:
# 6&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{98}{100}&lt;/math&gt; = 6.98
# 2&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{56}{100}&lt;/math&gt; = 2.56
# 9&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{27}{100}&lt;/math&gt; = 9.27
# 5&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{83}{100}&lt;/math&gt; = 5.83
You see? We simply put the mixed number in front of the dot, and with the numerator, we slap that behind the dot! Throw out the 100, it's not important when building your decimal. 

Decimals are all about place value, the value of a number in a specific place in a number. So, when we have &lt;math&gt;6.72&lt;/math&gt;, the &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt; is in the Ones place. Now, let's throw &lt;math&gt;9&lt;/math&gt; in the tens place, which is 10 times bigger than the Ones place: &lt;math&gt;96.72&lt;/math&gt;. But... that's doesn't seem enough, does it? Let's throw in a &lt;math&gt;6, 2, 8&lt;/math&gt; and a &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; in there! And now, we have: &lt;math&gt;628,396.72&lt;/math&gt;.

Woah! That's a pretty big number, but we can easily break this number down to it's place value. Let's do it!

So, our number, &lt;math&gt;628,396.72&lt;/math&gt;, is the number we need to break down. Let's start from the decimal point, and move left:
* The number &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt; is in the Ones place. '''x10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;9&lt;/math&gt; is in the Tens place. '''x10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; is in the Hundreds place. '''x10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;8&lt;/math&gt; is in the Thousands place. '''x10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; is in the Ten thousands place. '''x10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;6&lt;/math&gt; is in the Hundred Thousands place.

Now we have broken up the numbers left of the decimal--What about the numbers on the ''right''? Let's throw in a &lt;math&gt;5, 2, 4&lt;/math&gt; and a &lt;math&gt;7&lt;/math&gt;. Now, we have &lt;math&gt;628,396.725,247&lt;/math&gt;. Let's break this number up like we did above.

So, our number, &lt;math&gt;628,396.725,247&lt;/math&gt;, is the number we need to break down. This time, we need to start on the decimal point, and move ''right'':
* The number &lt;math&gt;7&lt;/math&gt; is in the Tenths place. '''x-10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; is in the Hundredths place. '''x-10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; is in the Thousandths place. '''x-10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; is in the Ten Thousandths place. '''x-10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; is in the Hundred Thousandths place. '''x-10'''
* The number &lt;math&gt;7&lt;/math&gt; is in the Millionths place. 

We have just now gone over the importance of Place Value in the Decimal World. Now, we will go into how to work with decimals, in the Decimal World!

See also: http://www.shmoop.com/fractions-decimals/place-value-naming-decimals.html

==== Adding/Subtracting Decimals ====
To add decimals, in addition column-style, put the decimals in its place with the decimals lined up. Then simply add on. So, for &lt;math&gt;1.5&lt;/math&gt; + &lt;math&gt;2.5&lt;/math&gt; we'd line up the decimal points. But, if we had a problem like &lt;math&gt;1.15&lt;/math&gt; + &lt;math&gt;2.0&lt;/math&gt;, we'd add a &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; after the &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; that is behind the decimal. Adding a zero to a place in a decimal means &quot;no value&quot;. So &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt; basically means no ones, and &lt;math&gt;100&lt;/math&gt;, means no ones or hundreds. Same things goes for subtracting as well folks.
=====Sample problems for ''adding/subtracting decimals''=====
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot; points=&quot;1/1&quot;&gt;
{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
6.8 - 2.5 = { 4.3_6 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
3.4 + 5.6 = { 9_6 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
9 + 4.50 = { 13.5_6 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
41.89 + 25.00 = { 66.89_6 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
9.01 + 3.089 = { 12.099_6 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
10.90 + 11.1 = { 22_6 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
9.5 + 3.44 = { 12.94_6 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot; coef=&quot;2.5&quot;}
9.00 x 2.00 = { 18_6 } 
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==== Multiplying Decimals ====
[[File:9.82x5.73 multiplication image.svg|thumb|A visual representation of the multiplication example]]
Multiplying decimals isn't as hard as it really seems to be. So, we have &lt;math&gt;9.83&lt;/math&gt; × &lt;math&gt;5.73&lt;/math&gt;. For most people, column multiplication is a lot easier than side-by-side multiplication. That being mentioned, let us column these numbers:

&lt;math&gt;9.83&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;× &lt;math&gt;5.73&lt;/math&gt;
-------

Now that we have our problem, we should simply ignore the decimal points and just multiply as usual, so you should get this answer once you are done with that (remember to add a zero (and grow with zeros in each line) to each and every line of addition):

&lt;math&gt;9.83&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;        × &lt;math&gt;5.73&lt;/math&gt;
-------
&lt;math&gt;2949&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;  &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt;   &lt;math&gt;68810&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;  &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;491500
&lt;/math&gt;
-------

With the simple usage of addition, we should get:

&lt;math&gt;9.83&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;        × &lt;math&gt;5.73&lt;/math&gt;
-------
&lt;math&gt;2949&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;   &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt;  &lt;math&gt;68810&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;  &lt;math&gt;+
&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;491500&lt;/math&gt;
-------
&lt;math&gt;563259&lt;/math&gt;

Now, we need to bring back our handy dandy decimal point, but where? In &lt;math&gt;9.83&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;5.73&lt;/math&gt;, there are FOUR numbers in these 2 numbers overall that are behind the decimal point (in each number, there are two numbers behind the decimal points). So, we have &lt;math&gt;9.83&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;5.73&lt;/math&gt;. Now, that totals up to four numbers overall behind the decimal point. So in &lt;math&gt;563259&lt;/math&gt;, we need to move the decimal point four times (beginning from the right). So watch as follows:

&lt;math&gt;563259.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;56325.9&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;5632.59&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;563.259&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;56.3259&lt;/math&gt;

That simple. Now, review your work, your whole work should look like this:

&lt;math&gt;9.83&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;       × &lt;math&gt;5.73&lt;/math&gt;
-------
&lt;math&gt;2949&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;    &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;68810&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;  &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;491500&lt;/math&gt;
-------
&lt;math&gt;56.3259&lt;/math&gt;

==== Dividing Decimals ====
;Dividing a decimal by a whole number
If you want to divide a decimal by a whole number, you should divide the 2 numbers, omitting the decimal point. After you are done dividing, add the decimal point to the '''quotient''' (final product/answer at the top of the long division symbol). The decimal should be right above the decimal point in the '''dividend''' (number in the box/number that is being divided). It's quite easy and simple, as long as you know how to do long division and if you are still familiar with long division. 

Hey, this seems ''too'' easy--Let's figure out how to divide a decimal by a decimal!
;Dividing a decimal by a decimal
The trick to dividing a decimal by a decimal is to shift the decimal point as many times as it gets to a whole number, so follow along: &lt;math&gt;69.45&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;5.78&lt;/math&gt;. Now, we simply move the decimal point as many times as we need to make the number we are going to use to divide 69.45 a whole number, so watch as followed:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;69.45&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;5.78&lt;/math&gt; →&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;694.5&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;57.8&lt;/math&gt; →&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;6945&lt;/math&gt;. ÷ &lt;math&gt;578&lt;/math&gt;.


Now that we have finally got our dividend a whole number (and now our first number that we are going to divide), we can go ahead and divide normally (using long division). In the end, &lt;math&gt;69.45&lt;/math&gt; divided by &lt;math&gt;5.78&lt;/math&gt; should get you &lt;math&gt;12.0155709&lt;/math&gt;!

A pretty simple one we could go is &lt;math&gt;6.4&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;0.4&lt;/math&gt;, here, we simply move our dots like so:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;6.4&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;0.4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;64&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;04.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;64&lt;/math&gt; ÷ &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
Then, we can simply divide, heck... we don't even need to do long division! The answer should pop in your head, which is &lt;math&gt;16&lt;/math&gt;.

{{notice|If you would like to take the quiz on Decimals, please go to '''[[Speak Math Now!/Week 1: Introduction To Algebra/Decimals Quiz]]'''}}

===Percentages===
A good definition of &quot;percent&quot; is a fraction in which the denominator is the number &lt;math&gt;100&lt;/math&gt;. For example, the numbers &lt;math&gt;59%&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;63%&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;91%&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;85%&lt;/math&gt;, are the same as just saying &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{59}{100}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{63}{100}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{91}{100}&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{85}{100}&lt;/math&gt;. You could also say 59 out of 100 parts, 63 out of 100 parts, 91 out of 100 parts, and 85 out of 100 parts.
====Converting Percentages====
Now that we got the basis of percentages and how they operate, we should look into changing percentages.
===== Percentage → Decimal =====
Let's look in turning a percentage into a decimal point first. It's very simple. Let's say you have &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{9}{100}&lt;/math&gt;, which, in percentage form, is &lt;math&gt;9%&lt;/math&gt;. So, we have 9%. Now, we want to change it to a decimal (I don't know, think of a reason). We simply convert the percentage symbol into a decimal point, so like this: &lt;math&gt;9.&lt;/math&gt;. Now, we have &lt;math&gt;9.&lt;/math&gt;, so then we move the decimal number two places to the left, like so: &lt;math&gt;9.&lt;/math&gt; → &lt;math&gt;.9&lt;/math&gt; → &lt;math&gt;.09&lt;/math&gt;. So now, we have &lt;math&gt;0.09&lt;/math&gt;. We added the 2 zeros in because there is no value in the tenths place, and because &lt;math&gt;.09&lt;/math&gt; does not look quite right. Looks a bit off.
===== Samples problems for ''converting percentages to decimals'' =====
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot; points=&quot;1/1&quot;&gt;
{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
59% = { 0.59_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
63% = { 0.63_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
91% = { 0.91_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
85% = { 0.85_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
9% = { 0.09_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
9834% = { 98.34_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
20% = { 0.2_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
4% = { 0.04_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
7.6% = { 0.076_5 }

{
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
6% = { 0.06_5 }
&lt;/quiz&gt;
===== Decimal → Percentage =====
Now to convert a decimal into percentage we essentially do the complete opposite. We have &lt;math&gt;98.34&lt;/math&gt;. We need this to be a percentage (easier to read). Move the decimal point two places to the right. So, watch: &lt;math&gt;98.34&lt;/math&gt; → &lt;math&gt;983.4&lt;/math&gt; → &lt;math&gt;9834.&lt;/math&gt; --Now, we have &lt;math&gt;9834.&lt;/math&gt;, but the decimal point, since it's now a percentage, should not be there, but instead, a percentage should talk the decimal point's place. Now, we have our final result of &lt;math&gt;9834%&lt;/math&gt;.

==== Finding percent of a number ====
[[File:Universität Bonn.jpg|thumb|right|Would this be the fictional university these students were trying to get accepted to?]]
So, 95 students applied to a university (the fictional [[User:Atcovi/Mustafa Einhoonansebadoi University|Mustafa Einhoonansebadoi University]], for example), and only 20% of the students made it. 20%? What? With this in mind, we want to find &lt;math&gt;20%&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;95&lt;/math&gt;. We take the percentage, &lt;math&gt;20%&lt;/math&gt;, and divide it by &lt;math&gt;100&lt;/math&gt;. So we get &lt;math&gt;20/100&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;.2&lt;/math&gt;. Then, we multiply &lt;math&gt;.2&lt;/math&gt; by &lt;math&gt;95&lt;/math&gt;, in which we get &lt;math&gt;19&lt;/math&gt;. So &lt;math&gt;20%&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;95&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;19&lt;/math&gt;. Therefore, only 19 students out of 95 students made it into the fictional Mustafa Einhoonansebadoi University. 

{{subpage navbar}}
[[Category:Speak Math Now!]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>One Health</title>
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        <username>Bert Niehaus</username>
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      <text bytes="9099" sha1="el737234l79tv69pe8oqfg5xrguzit3" xml:space="preserve">[[File:One Health.png|thumb|One Health Diagram]]
[[File:Toxic Algae Bloom in Lake Erie.jpg|thumb|Toxic algae bloom - respiratory diseases - impact on animals - remote sensing and risk maps for One Health ]]
'''One Health''' is &quot;the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines — working locally, nationally, and globally — to attain optimal health for 
* [[Public health|people]], 
* [[/Animal health/|animals]] and the 
* [[Environmental health|environment]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;The American Veterinary Medical Association. One Health Initiative Task Force. &quot;One Health: A New Professional Imperative&quot;. July 15, 2008. https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/Reports/Documents/onehealth_final.pdf. Accessed September 1, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Backgroud == 

One Health is a new phrase, but the concept extends back to ancient times. The recognition that environmental factors can impact human health can be traced as far back as to the [[Wikipedia:greece|Greek]] physician [[Wikipedia:Hippocrates|Hippocrates]] (c. 460 BCE – c. 370 BCE) in his text &quot;On Airs, Waters, and Places&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Original Work on Wikisource: &quot;On Airs, Waters, and Places&quot;, Hypocrates - [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CE%B1%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BD,_%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%AC%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD,_%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%80%CF%89%CE%BD https://el.wikisource.org]&lt;/ref&gt; He promoted the concept that public health depended on a clean environment.&lt;ref&gt;The Internet Classics Archive. Hippocrates. &quot;On Airs, Waters, and Places&quot;. 400 BCE. Translated by Francis Adams. http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/airwatpl.html. Accessed September 1, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Wikipedia:italy|Italian]] physician [[Wikipedia:Giovanni Maria Lancisi|Giovanni Maria Lancisi]] (1654–1720) was a pioneering epidemiologist, physician, and veterinarian, with a fascination in the role the physical environment played in the spread of disease in humans and animals. Lancisi may have been the first to advocate the use of mosquito nets for prevention of malaria in humans&lt;ref&gt;Drake D. A practical treatise on the history, prevention, and treatment of epidemic cholera, designed both for the profession and the people. Cincinnati, Corey and Fairbank, 1832.&lt;/ref&gt; but was also a pioneer in the control of [[Wikipedia:rinderpest|Rinderpest]] in cattle. The idea that human, animal, and environmental healths are linked was further revived during the [[Wikipedia:france|French]] Revolution by Louis-René Villerme (1782–1863) and Alexandre Parent du Châtelet (1790–1835) who developed the specialty of public hygiene.&lt;ref&gt;A. F. LaBerge. &quot;Mission and Method. The Early Nineteenth-Century French Public Health Movement.&quot; Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992.&lt;/ref&gt;

In the late 19th century, German physician and pathologist [[Wikipedia:Rudolf Virchow|Rudolf Virchow]] (1821–1902) coined the term &quot;zoonosis&quot;, and said &quot;...between animal and human medicine there are no dividing lines – nor should there be&quot;. Canadian physician William Osler (1849–1919) traveled to Germany to study with Virchow. He returned to Canada and held joint faculty appointments at the McGill University Medical School and the Montreal Veterinary College.&lt;ref&gt;Kahn LH, Kaplan B, Steele JH. &quot;Confronting zoonoses through closer collaboration between medicine and veterinary medicine (as 'one medicine'). ''Veterinaria Italiana'' 2007; 43(1): 5-19. http://www.onehealthinitiative.com/publications/01%20Kahn%20et%20al%20%205-19%208Mar07.pdf. Accessed September 1, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; Osler was active as a clinical pathologist and internist at the Montreal General Hospital, but was also active in the promotion of veterinary health, and helped investigate a swine typhoid outbreak near Quebec City in 1878;&lt;ref&gt;Murphy, DA. Osler, now a veterinarian! Can Med Assoc J 1960 July 2; 83(1): 32–35.&lt;/ref&gt; he subsequently co-authored a monograph on parasites in Montreal's pork supply with A. W. Clement, a veterinary student at Montreal Veterinary College.&lt;ref&gt;Osler W., Clement A. W. [https://books.google.ca/books?id=EOAsAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA4&amp;lpg=PA4&amp;dq=osler+swine+typhoid+outbreak+investigation&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=n4OntPQYtq&amp;sig=vOEiPU30bgHt7n5-HCXSDkREy5E&amp;hl=en&amp;ei=zBVhToa3C_O50AHS4pkd&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;ct=result&amp;resnum=1&amp;ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false An investigation into the parasites in the pork supply of Montreal], 1883. Gazette Printing Company, Montreal.&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1947, veterinarian [[Wikipedia:James Harlan Steele|James H. Steele]] furthered the concept in the U.S. by establishing the field of [[Wikipedia:veterinary public health|veterinary public health]] at the [[Wikipedia:United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]].&lt;ref&gt;Waddy J. &quot;Father of Veterinary Public Health Profiled in New Book.&quot; The University of Texas Health Sciences Center. August 14, 2009. http://www.texasmedicalcenter.org/root/en/TMCServices/News/2009/08-14/Father+of+Veterinary+Public+Health+Profiled+in+New+Book.htm. Accessed September 1, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; The phrase &quot;One Medicine&quot; was developed and promoted by Calvin W. Schwabe (1927–2006), a veterinary epidemiologist and parasitologist in his textbook &quot;Veterinary Medicine and Human Health&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Kass PH, McCapes RH, Pritchard WR. &quot;In Memoriam. Calvin W. Schwabe. Professor Emeritus of Veterinary Epidemiology. Davis. 1927-2006. http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/senate/inmemoriam/calvinwschwabe.htm. Accessed September 1, 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1996, Gary M. Tabor, Alonso Aguirre, Mary Pearl, David Sherman, Mark Pokras, Eric Chivian, Paul Epstein, and Gretchen Kauffman launched the Conservation Medicine: Ecological Health in Practice effort (Consortium for Conservation Medicine) with the [[Wikipedia:Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine|Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine]] at Tufts University, Harvard Medical School’s [[Wikipedia:Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment|Center for Health and the Global Environment]], and [[Wikipedia:EcoHealth Alliance|EcoHealth Alliance]] (formerly Wildlife Trust), with an institutional focus linking human, animal, and ecological health.&lt;ref&gt;Aguirre, A. A., R. S. Ostfeld, G. M. Tabor, C. A. House and M. C. Pearl (eds.). 2002. Conservation Medicine: Ecological Health in Practice. Oxford University Press, New York, 407 pp; Tabor, G.M. 2002. Defining Conservation Medicine. In: Aguirre, A. A., R. S. Ostfeld, G. M. Tabor, C. A. House and M. C. Pearl (eds.). 2002. Conservation Medicine: Ecological Health in Practice. Oxford University Press, New York; Tabor, G.M., R.S. Ostfeld, M. Poss, A.P. Dobson, and A.A. Aguirre, 2001. Conservation Biology and the Health Sciences: Defining the Research Priorities of Conservation Medicine. In: M.E. Soulé and G.H. Orians, eds. Research Priorities in Conservation Biology. 2nd edition. Island Press; Washington, D.C.; Pokras M., G.M. Tabor, M. Pearl, D. Sherman and P. Epstein, 1999. Conservation Medicine: an emerging field. In Nature and human society: the quest for a sustainable world. National Academy Press. Washington, DC. pp: 551-556.&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;One Health&quot; was mentioned in a story about Ebola hemorrhagic fever on April 7, 2003, when Rick Weiss of the Washington Post quoted William Karesh as saying, &quot;Human or livestock or wildlife health can't be discussed in isolation anymore. There is just one health. And the solutions require everyone working together on all the different levels.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Weiss, R.  Africa's Apes Are Imperiled, Researchers Warn. ''The Washington Post''. Apr. 7, 2003.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Learning Task ==

* Analyse the Fukushima [[Disaster Management|disaster]] from the One Health perspective and create a [[Wikipedia:Mindmap|Mindmap]] (e.g. with the OpenSource Tool [http://freemind.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Download Freemind]) that shows the connectivity of 
** environmental,
** animal and 
** public health factors.
* [[Climate change|Global warming]] leads to change of enviromental conditions. What is your hypothesis for vector-bourne diseases like Malaria, Dengue, Tick-borne diseases? How are your expectations about the epidemiological spread of the disease in North America? Can you find scientific evidence for your hypothesis? (Add examples to this learning resource, so that other learner can build on your work and check exisiting scientific evidence)
** [[Malaria]]
** [[Wikipedia:Dengue fever|Dengue fever]],
** [[Wikipedia:West Nile fever|West Nile fever]],
** [[Wikipedia:Tick-borne_disease|Tick-bourne disease]]
* Analyse the requirements and constraints a mosquito life-cycle has according to the environmental conditions. Analyse climate change impact for the place you live. Do you have an expectation for the epidemiological spread for your area? What are your suggestions for [[Risk Management|risk mitigation strategies]]?

== See also ==
* [[Risk Literacy]]
* [[Spatial Ecotoxicology]]
* [[Precision Global Health]]
* [[Space and Global Health]]
* [[Environmental health|Environmental Health]]

== References ==

[[Category:SDG 3 - Good Health and Well-being]]
[[Category:Environmental health]]
[[Category:Environmental education]]
[[Category:Public health]]</text>
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      <text bytes="20354" sha1="sc1uj6afk5p1v3azw4tndg72utwsvet" xml:space="preserve">{{Original research}}


'''The mathematical electron model'''

In the mathematical electron model &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}&lt;/ref&gt;, the electron is a geometrical object denoted by the formula (ψ), itself the geometry of 3 numbers; the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant alpha]] = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014), a mathematical constant Omega, and pi (Omega itself is a construct of pi and e). 

:&lt;math&gt;\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453... \times 10^{23},\;unit = 1&lt;/math&gt; (unit-less)

:&lt;math&gt;\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\pi^e e^{(1-e)}\right)}  = 2.0071349543... &lt;/math&gt;


Although dimensionless, this formula ψ encodes the information required to make the physical electron parameters (wavelength, frequency, mass, charge). It does this by embedding within its own geometry objects for [[w:Planck_units |Planck units]] analogues; M for mass &lt;math&gt;m_P&lt;/math&gt;, L for length &lt;math&gt;l_p&lt;/math&gt;, T for time &lt;math&gt;t_p&lt;/math&gt; and A for charge &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, and ψ also dictates the frequency of these geometrical (Planck) objects. For example; 

[[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]]
:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_e = 2\pi l_p \psi&lt;/math&gt;  

[[w:electron mass | electron mass]] 
:&lt;math&gt;m_e = \frac{m_P}{\psi}&lt;/math&gt; 


=== Geometrical objects MLTA ===
The base MLTA units {{main|User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+table 1. Geometrical units
! Attribute
! Geometrical object
! Unit
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;  
| (kg)
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt;  
| (s)
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;  
| (m/s)
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| (m)
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})&lt;/math&gt; 
| (A)
|}


Geometrical objects (when compared to a numbering system) have the advantage in that the function (attribute) can be embedded within the geometry (even although the geometry itself is dimensionless); for example, the geometry of the time object T embeds the function 'time', the geometry of the length object L embeds the function 'length' ... and being geometrical objects they can combine to form more complex objects, from electrons to apples  ... and so the apple has mass because embedded within it are the mass objects M. Thus complex objects retain all this underlying information.

This however requires a relationship between the Planck unit geometries (L has the attribute of length when placed in context with M, T ...), this can be represented by assigning to each attribute a unit number '''θ''' (i.e.: '''θ''' = 15 ⇔ ''kg'').

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Geometrical units
! Attribute
! Geometrical object
! unit number (θ)
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = 1&lt;/math&gt;  
| ''kg'' ⇔ 15
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = 2\pi&lt;/math&gt;  
| ''s'' ⇔ -30
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = 2\pi^2\Omega^2&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''m'' ⇔ -13
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = 2\pi\Omega^2&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''m/s'' ⇔ 17
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = \frac{2^6 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}}&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''A'' ⇔ 3
|}


As alpha and Omega can be assigned numerical values ('''α''' = 137.035999139, '''Ω''' = 2.0071349496), so too the MLTA objects can be expressed numerically. We can then convert these objects to their Planck unit equivalents by including a dimensioned scalar. For example, &lt;math&gt;V = 2\pi\Omega^2&lt;/math&gt; = 25.3123819353... and so we can use scalar ''v'' to convert from dimensionless geometrical object V to dimensioned ''c''.

:scalar ''v''&lt;sub&gt;SI&lt;/sub&gt; = 11843707.905 m/s gives ''c'' = V*v&lt;sub&gt;SI&lt;/sub&gt; = 25.3123819 * 11843707.905 m/s = 299792458 m/s ([[w:SI_units |SI units]])

:scalar ''v''&lt;sub&gt;imp&lt;/sub&gt; = 7359.3232155 miles/s gives ''c'' = V*v&lt;sub&gt;imp&lt;/sub&gt; = 186282 miles/s ([[w:Imperial_units |imperial units]]) 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Scalars
! attribute
! geometrical object
! scalar (unit number)
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;
| ''k'' (θ = 15)
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt;
| ''t'' (θ = -30)
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;
| ''v'' (θ = 17)
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''l'' (θ = -13)
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})&lt;/math&gt; 
| ''a'' (θ = 3)
|}


As the scalar incorporates the dimension quantity (the dimension quantity for ''v'' = ''m/s'' or ''miles/s''), the unit number relationship (θ) applies, and so we then find that only 2 scalars are needed. This is because in a defined ratio they will overlap and cancel, for example in the following ratios; 

scalar units for ampere ''a'' = ''u''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, length ''l'' = ''u''&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt;, time ''t'' = ''u''&lt;sup&gt;-30&lt;/sup&gt;, mass ''k'' = ''u''&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; (''u''&lt;sup&gt;Θ&lt;/sup&gt; represents unit)
 
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{({u^3})^3{(u^{-13}})^3}{(u^{-30})} = \frac{{(u^{-13})}^{15}} {{(u^{15})}^{9}{(u^{-30})}^{11}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

For example if we know the numerical values for ''a'' and ''l'' then we know the numerical value for ''t'', and from ''l'' and ''t'' we know ''k'' … and so if we know any 2 scalars (α and Ω have fixed values) then we can solve the Planck units (for that system of units), and from these, we can solve (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;). 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{a^3 l^3}{t} = \frac{m^{15}} {k^{9} t^{11}} = 1&lt;/math&gt; and so &lt;math&gt;{a^3 l^3} = t&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{m^{15}} = {k^{9} t^{11}}&lt;/math&gt;


In this table the 2 scalars used are ''r'' (θ = 8) which is related to momentum, and ''v'' (θ = 17). A further attribute is included, P = the square root of (Planck) momentum. This gives us 3 primary (Planck) units MTP; L, V and A can thus be considered composite objects &lt;ref&gt;Scalar theory in geometrical objects https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Scalars&lt;/ref&gt;.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Geometrical objects
! attribute
! geometrical object
! unit number θ
! scalar r(8), v(17)
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = (1)&lt;/math&gt;
| 15 = 8*4-17
| &lt;math&gt;k = \frac{r^4}{v}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = (\pi)&lt;/math&gt;
|  -30 = 8*9-17*6 
| &lt;math&gt;t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]]
| &lt;math&gt;P = (\Omega)&lt;/math&gt;
| 16 = 8*2
| ''r''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = \frac{2\pi P^2}{M} = (2\pi\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt;
| 17
| ''v''
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = V T = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)&lt;/math&gt; 
| -13 = 8*9-17*5
| &lt;math&gt;l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha_{inv} P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha_{inv}})&lt;/math&gt; 
| 3 = 17*3-8*6
| &lt;math&gt;a = \frac{v^3}{r^6}&lt;/math&gt;
|}


=== Mathematical electron ===

The mathematical electron formula ψ incorporates the dimensioned Planck units but itself is dimension-less (units = scalars = 1). Here ψ is defined in terms of ''σ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'', where AL is an ampere-meter (ampere-length = ''e*c'' are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]). 

:&lt;math&gt;T = \pi,\; unit = u^{-30},\;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; unit = u^{(3 \;-13 \;= \;-10)},\; scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\psi = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23},\;unit = 1&lt;/math&gt; (unit-less)

Both units and scalars cancel. 


===== Electron parameters =====
We can solve the electron parameters; electron mass, wavelength, frequency, charge ... as the frequency of the Planck units themselves, and this frequency is ψ.
:&lt;math&gt;v = 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = \frac{m}{s}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] λ&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 2.4263102367e-12m (CODATA 2014)
:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L \psi&lt;/math&gt; = 2.4263102386e-12m  (L ⇔ [[w:Planck length | Planck length]])


[[w:electron mass | electron mass]] m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 9.10938356e-31kg (CODATA 2014)
:&lt;math&gt;m_e^* = \frac{M}{\psi}&lt;/math&gt; = 9.1093823211e-31kg (M ⇔ [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]) 


[[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] e = 1.6021766208e-19C (CODATA 2014)   
:&lt;math&gt;e^* = A\;T&lt;/math&gt; = 1.6021765130e-19 (T ⇔ [[w:Planck time | Planck time]])


[[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] R = 10973731.568508/m  (CODATA 2014)
:&lt;math&gt;R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha_{inv}^2 M}) = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha_{inv}^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9}\;u^{13}&lt;/math&gt; = 10973731.568508


From the above formulas, we see that wavelength is ψ units of Planck length, frequency is ψ units of Planck time ... however the electron mass is only 1 unit of Planck mass.


===== Electron Mass =====
Particle mass is a unit of Planck mass that occurs only once per ψ units of Planck time, the other parameters are continuums of the Planck units.
:units &lt;math&gt;\psi = \frac{(AL)^3}{T}&lt;/math&gt; = 1

This may be interpreted as; for ψ units of Planck time the electron has wavelength L, charge A ... and then the AL combine with time T (A&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;L&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/T) and the units (and scalars) cancel. The electron is now mass (for 1 unit of Planck time). In this consideration, the electron is an event that oscillates over time between an electric wave state (duration ψ units of Planck time) to a unit of Planck mass point state (1 unit of Planck time). The electron is a quantum scale event, it does not exist at the discrete Planck scale (and so therefore neither does the quantum scale).

As electron mass is the frequency of the geometrical Planck mass M = 1, which is a point (and so with point co-ordinates), then we have a model for a [[w:black hole electron |black-hole electron]], the electron function ψ centered around this unit of Planck mass. When the wave-state (A*L)&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/T units collapse, this black-hole center (point) is exposed for 1 unit of (Planck) time. The electron is 'now' (a unit of Planck) mass.

Mass in this consideration is not a constant property of the particle, rather the measured particle mass ''m'' would refer to the average mass, the average occurrence of the discrete Planck mass point-state over time. The formula ''E = hf'' is a measure of the frequency ''f'' of occurrence of [[w:Planck constant |Planck's constant ''h'']] and applies to the electric wave-state. As for each wave-state there is a corresponding mass point-state, then for a particle ''hf == mc2''. Notably however the ''c'' term is a fixed constant unlike the ''f'' term, and so the ''m'' term is the frequency term, it is referring to an average mass (mass which is measured over time) rather than a constant mass (mass as a constant property of the particle at unit Planck time). Thus as noted, when we refer to mass as a constant property, we are referring to average mass at the quantum scale, and the electron as a quantum-state particle.

If the [[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding |scaffolding of the universe]] includes units of Planck mass '''M''', then it is not necessary for a particle itself to have mass, what we define as electron mass could be the absence of electron &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title= 1. Planck unit scaffolding correlates with the Cosmic Microwave Background |journal=SSRN |date=Feb 2011 |  doi=10.2139/ssrn.3333513}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  


===== Quarks and Spin=====
The charge on the electron derives from the embedded ampere A and length L, the electron formula ψ itself is dimensionless. These AL magnetic monopoles would seem to be analogous to quarks (there are 3 monopoles per electron), but due to the symmetry and so stability of the geometrical ψ there is no clear fracture point by which an electron could decay, and so this would be difficult to test. We can however conjecture on what a quark solution might look like, the advantage with this approach being that we do not need to introduce new 'entities' for our quarks, the Planck units embedded within the electron suffice &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 7. Geometric Origin of Quarks and Spin, the Mathematical Electron extended |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.21695.16808/1 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.

====== Quarks======
Electron formula
:&lt;math&gt;\psi = 2^{20} \pi^8 3^3 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = 1, scalars = 1&lt;/math&gt;

Time
:&lt;math&gt;T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;


AL magnetic monopole
:&lt;math&gt;\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5},\; u^{-10}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\psi = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;\sigma_{e}&lt;/math&gt; could equate to a quark with an [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of {{sfrac|-1|3}}[[w:elementary charge|''e'']], then it would be an analogue of the '''D''' quark. 3 of these D quarks would constitute the electron as DDD = (AL)*(AL)*(AL). 


We would assume that the charge on the [[w:positron |positron]] (anti-matter electron) is just the inverse of the above, however there is 1 problem, the AL (A; θ=3, L; θ=-13) units = -10, and if we look at the [[v:User:Platos Cave (physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)#Table_of_Constants |table of constants]], there is no 'units = +10' combination that can include A. We cannot make an inverse electron. However we can make a [[w:Planck temperature|Planck temperature T&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;]] AV ''monopole'' (ampere-velocity).

:&lt;math&gt;T_p = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha_{inv}},\; u^{20}, \;scalars = \frac{r^9}{v^6}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma_{t} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 T_p}{2\pi} = \frac{3 \alpha_{inv}^2 A V}{2\pi^2} = ({2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha_{inv} \Omega^5}),\; u^{20},\;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\psi = (2T) \sigma_{t}^2 \sigma_{e} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha_{inv}^3 \Omega^{15},\; unit = (u^{-30}) (u^{20})^2 (u^{-10}) = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^9}{v^6}) (\frac{v^4}{r^6})^2   \frac{r^3}{v^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;


The units for &lt;math&gt;\sigma_{t}&lt;/math&gt; = +20, and so if units = -10 equates to {{sfrac|-1|3}}e, then we may conjecture that units = +20  equates to {{sfrac|2|3}}e, which would be the analogue of the '''U''' quark. Our plus charge now becomes DUU, and so although the positron has the same wavelength, frequency, mass and charge magnitude as the electron (both solve to ψ), internally its charge structure resembles that of the proton, the positron is not simply an inverse of the electron. This could have implications for the missing anti-matter, and for why the charge magnitude of the proton is ''exactly'' the charge magnitude of the electron.

:&lt;math&gt;D = \sigma_{e},\; unit = u^{-10},\; charge = \frac{-1e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{r^3}{v^2}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;U = \sigma_{t},\; unit = u^{20},\; charge = \frac{2e}{3}, \;scalars = \frac{v^4}{r^6}&lt;/math&gt;


Numerically:

Adding a proton and electron gives (proton) UUD &amp; DDD (electron) = 2(UDD) = 20 -10 -10 = 0 (zero charge), scalars = 0.

Converting between U and D via U &amp; DDD (electron) = 20 -10 -10 -10 = -10 (D), scalars = &lt;math&gt;\frac{r^3}{v^2}&lt;/math&gt;


====== Spin ======
[[v:User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity |Relativity at the Planck scale]] can be described by a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems; an expanding (in Planck steps at the speed of light) 4-axis hyper-sphere projecting onto a 3-D space &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 2. Relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe |journal=SSRN | doi=10.2139/ssrn.3334282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. In this scenario, particles (with mass) are pulled along by the expansion of the hyper-sphere, this then requires particles to have an axis; generically labeled N-S, with the N denoting the direction of particle travel within the hyper-sphere. Changing the direction of travel involves changing the orientation of the particle N-S axis. We can link that external N--S axis to the internal monopole (DDD) geometry, and from this show how the three internal phases produce the spin-½ transformation law under spatial rotations about the N-S direction &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= 7. Geometric Origin of Quarks and Spin, the Mathematical Electron extended |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.21695.16808/1 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.


==Article series==
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ simulationuniverse.org]]: Home page

===Wiki series===
* [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_units_(geometrical)]]: Planck units MLTPA as geometrical objects
* [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Gravity_via_Atomic_orbitals]]: Gravity as a function of atomic orbitals 
* [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Relativity]]: Relativity as a translation between 2 co-ordinate systems
* [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Planck_unit_scaffolding]]: CMB and a Planck unit universe scaffolding
* [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/Sqrt_Planck_momentum]]: Link between charge and mass
* [[User:Platos_Cave_(physics)/Simulation_Hypothesis/God_(programmer)]]: Introduction to a Planck scale Programmer God Simulation Hypothesis model

===General articles===
The journal articles have been translated to .HTML files.
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/1-Planck-unit-CMB.html 1-Planck-unit-CMB.html]]: Constructs the universe frame from Planck units 
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/2-Relativity-hypersphere.html 2-Relativity-hypersphere.html]]: Relativity as the mathematics of perspective 
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/3-Gravitational-orbitals.html 3-Gravitational-orbitals.html]]: Gravity as sum of n-body rotating orbital particle-particle pairs
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/4-Atomic-orbitals.html 4-Atomic-orbitals.html]]: Atomic orbitals as single rotating orbital particle-particle pairs
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/5-w_axis.html 5-w_axis.html]]: Imaginary number axis (radiation domain)
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html 6-Physical-constant-anomalies.html]]: Statistical analysis of physical constant anomalies
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/7-Monopole-quarks.html 7-Monopole-quarks.html]]: Quarks as monopoles
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/8-Holographic-universe.html 8-Holographic-universe.html]]: Hypersphere surface as 2-D analogue

===3+1 oscillation levels===
Work in progress
* [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36449.26723 part1_spiral_Planck_time.pdf]]: The Planck scale
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/files/Omega_derivation.pdf Omega_derivation.pdf]]: Omega derivation
* [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12830.09283 part2_spiral_quantum_scale.pdf]]: The Quantum scale
* [[https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32962.75200 part3_cosmological_scale.pdf]]: The Cosmological scale
* [[https://simulationuniverse.org/ part4_observer_hierarchy.pdf]]: The Heavens (the container universe)


== External links == 
* [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website
* [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website
* [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark (Book)
* [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article)
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/ The Matrix, (1999)]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/ Pythagoras &quot;all is number&quot;] - Stanford University
* [[w:Simulation Hypothesis | Simulation Hypothesis]]
* [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis | Mathematical universe hypothesis]]
* [[w:Philosophy of mathematics | Philosophy of mathematics]]
* [[w:Philosophy of physics | Philosophy of physics]]
* [[w:Platonism | Platonism]]


== References == 
{{Reflist}}


[[Category: Physics]]
[[Category: Philosophy of science]]
__INDEX__</text>
      <sha1>sc1uj6afk5p1v3azw4tndg72utwsvet</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convergence of Virasoro conformal blocks</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>259722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817971</id>
      <parentid>2211273</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-09T08:45:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sylvain Ribault</username>
        <id>2127778</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Recent paper</comment>
      <origin>2817971</origin>
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      <text bytes="6075" sha1="ftat9efoj9ld81qxwr6u7gur4unj2zl" xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Virasoro conformal block|Virasoro conformal blocks]] have several series representations, but it is not proved that these series converge. This does not prevent them from being routinely used in numerical calculations. Proofs of convergence would put these calculations on firmer mathematical ground.

== Motivations == 

Virasoro four-point conformal blocks on the sphere are basic special functions of [[Wikipedia:two-dimensional conformal field theory|two-dimensional conformal field theory]]. Understanding their analytic properties, and computing them efficiently, are of fundamental interest. 

== Type of project == 

'''Tools''': Known expressions for conformal blocks from the physics literature, plus the mathematical tools that are needed to prove convergence. (Hopefully, elementary tools.)

'''Chances of success''': The question of convergence is fundamental in principle, but not crucial in practice for physicists. The lack of proofs so far does not imply that the problem is particularly difficult. Chances of success seem quite good, at least with Zamolodchikov's recursive representation, which is reasonably simple and explicit. 

'''Length and difficulty''': As series, conformal blocks depend on a number of parameters: the central charge and conformal dimensions. They have poles as functions of these parameters, and the convergence properties therefore presumably depend on the parameters' values. Studying convergence for simple and/or generic cases may be relatively quick and easy, but dealing with all possible cases may take more time.

== Known results == 

Conformal blocks are usually expanded as series either in the cross-ratio &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; or the nome &lt;math&gt;q=q(z)&lt;/math&gt;. The radius of convergence of both expansions is expected to be 1, but this has not been proved. Examples such as hypergeometric conformal blocks show that the radius is at most 1 for the expansion in &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt;: the question is whether it is always 1. 

=== Expansion in the cross-ratio ===

From their definition as sums over descendant states, four-point conformal blocks have a representation as series in the cross-ratio &lt;math&gt;z\in\mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt; of the four fields' positions. The radius of convergence is expected to be 1: intuitively, convergence occurs when the two fields whose OPE defines the block are closer to one another than to the other remaining fields. 

The formula for the series is explicit enough, except for the Shapovalov matrix &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt;. Deriving the needed properties of that matrix may require some algebra. 

The expansion in the cross-ratio can alternatively be computed using the AGT relation with Nekrasov partition functions.&lt;ref name=&quot;aflt&quot;/&gt; However, it is not clear how to deduce that the series converges.&lt;ref name=&quot;felder&quot;/&gt; By bounding each term of the instanton sum individually, it is possible to show that the radius of convergence is finite, for most values of the central charge.&lt;ref name=&quot;lf26&quot;/&gt;

=== Expansion in the nome ===

This expansion follows from Zamolodchikov's recursive representation of conformal blocks. The radius of convergence is again expected to be one, but the region &lt;math&gt;\{|q|&lt;1\}&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to a dense subset of the complex &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt;-plane. 

This representation involves infinite sums whose coefficients are known explicitly. Further formal manipulations are possible, which may help prove convergence.&lt;ref name=&quot;rpat&quot;/&gt; For certain rational values of the central charge, the recursive representation apparently diverges, whereas the blocks are finite: the divergences can be eliminated by resumming the expansion, but there is no known way to do this systematically.&lt;ref name=&quot;rib18&quot;/&gt;

== Work to be done ==
It seems reasonable to start with Zamolodchikov's recursive representation, which is known more explicitly and is more useful in practice. The main question will be for which values of the parameters convergence occurs. The coefficients in the series expansion have poles as functions of the central charge and conformal dimensions: this may mean that convergence depends on the number-theoretic properties of the central charge. Such a phenomenon has been found to occur in the case of sums over conformal blocks in certain conformal field theories.&lt;ref name=&quot;rib19&quot;/&gt;

== References == 
{{Reflist|refs=
&lt;ref name=&quot;lf26&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Le Floch | first=Bruno | title=Convergence of Nekrasov instanton sum for unitary quivers | website=arXiv.org | date=2026-06-30 | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2606.31953 | access-date=2026-07-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;rpat&quot;&gt;{{cite web | title=Virasoro conformal blocks in closed form | website=Research Practices and Tools | date=2015-03-13 | url=http://researchpracticesandtools.blogspot.com/2015/03/virasoro-conformal-blocks-in-closed-form.html | access-date=2020-02-04}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;rib19&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Ribault | first=Sylvain | title=The non-rational limit of D-series minimal models | website=arXiv.org | date=2019-09-24 | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.10784v1 | access-date=2020-02-04}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;aflt&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Alba | first=V. A. | last2=Fateev | first2=V. A. | last3=Litvinov | first3=A. V. | last4=Tarnopolsky | first4=G. M. | title=On combinatorial expansion of the conformal blocks arising from AGT conjecture | website=arXiv.org | date=2010-12-06 | doi=10.1007/s11005-011-0503-z | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1012.1312v4 | access-date=2020-02-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;felder&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Felder | first=Giovanni | last2=Müller-Lennert | first2=Martin | title=Analyticity of Nekrasov Partition Functions | website=arXiv.org | date=2017-09-15 | doi=10.1007/s00220-018-3270-1 | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1709.05232v3 | access-date=2020-02-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;rib18&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Ribault | first=Sylvain | title=On 2d CFTs that interpolate between minimal models | website=arXiv.org | date=2018-09-11 | doi=10.21468/SciPostPhys.6.6.075 | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1809.03722v3 | access-date=2020-02-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Conformal field theory]]</text>
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      <text bytes="41532" sha1="1ms7axvy4ydgpeh29bfreams7g2s07w" xml:space="preserve">== Overview ==
The Dukedom of Abercorn is the last non-royal dukedom created. Queen Victoria created it in 1869. 

This page includes the Earl of Wicklow, the family of which married into the Abercorn family in 1816 when William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Cecil Frances Hamilton — the daughter and only child of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-24|title=William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Howard,_4th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1360966619|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-08-26|title=Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Howard,_5th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1242455245|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton (daughter of the 2nd Duke of Abercorn) in 1902.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-05|title=Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Howard,_6th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1304372795|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The National Library of Ireland has papers from Sarah Howard and her children, including Lady Caroline Howard. 

== Also Known As ==
*Family name: Hamilton
*the Duke of Abercorn
**James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10144.htm#i101433|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;&quot;James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101033|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (3 January 1913 – 12 September 1953)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;&quot;James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101031|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*the Duchess of Abercorn
**Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)
**Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)
*Dowager Duchess of Hamilton
**Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – March 1905)
**Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (3 January 1913 – )
*Subsidiary titles:
**Marquess of Hamilton (courtesy title for the heir apparent)
***James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 12 September 1953)
**Viscount Strabane (courtesy title for the heir apparent of the Marquess of Hamilton)

== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==
=== Friends ===
*The Royal Family, especially [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Alexandra, Princess of Wales | Alexandra, Princess]] of Wales, in the generation of the 2nd duke.

== Timeline ==
A lot of people are treated on this page, so this timeline will be somewhat chaotic to read. These events probably didn't directly affect every single person treated on this page, but discussions about them probably circulated through the families. The detail about Lady Caroline Howard and her mother, the Hon. Susan Howard, is to make these people, whose papers are in the National Library of Ireland, more concrete and known.

'''1832 October 25''', James Hamilton and Louisa Russell married at Gordon Castle, Fochabers, Morayshire, in Scotland.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

'''1854 May 23''', Beatrix Frances Hamilton and George Frederick D'Arcy Lambton married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1147.htm#i11470|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1855 April 10''', Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton and Thomas George Anson married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Harriett Georgiana Louisa Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1034.htm#i10332|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1858 October 26''', Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton and William Henry Edgcumbe married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1135.htm#i11344|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1859 November 22''', Louisa Jane Hamilton and William Montagu Douglass Scott married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10359.htm#i103583|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1868''', the title the Duke of Abercorn was created.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-06|title=James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_1st_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=966293304|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1869 January 7''', James Hamilton (2nd Duke) and Maria Anna Curzon-Howe married at St. George's Church, St. George Street, Hanover Square, in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Mary Anna Curzon.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101034|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1869 November 8''', there may have been a double wedding: Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton and George Charles Spencer-Churchill married&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10595.htm#i105942|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and Maud Evelyn Hamilton and Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1163.htm#i11629|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1871 January''' '''4, Wednesday''', Lady Caroline Howard was invited to a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#4 January 1871, Wednesday|ball hosted by Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards]] (probably in Coventry?).

'''1871 February 17, Friday''', Lady Caroline Howard attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball|ball hosted by the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; in Birmingham]].

'''1871 May 9, Tuesday''', Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Alice Howard and Lady Louisa Howard were [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room|presented to Queen Victoria at a Drawing-room]] by their mother, the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard.

'''1871 August 31, Thursday''', The Freeman's Journal reported that &quot;The Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and suite have arrived at the Morrisson Hotel.&quot;&lt;blockquote&gt;The following are amongst the latest arrivals at the Morrisson Hotel: — Mrs. Percival Maxwell and the Misses Maxwell and suite, Mr and Mrs Herbert Read and suite, Rev H R Heywood, and Master H A Heywood, Mr F H Downing, Mr M Neil, Mr and Mrs Herbert and suite, Mr Abbott, Mr D'Arcy, Mr and Mrs G Woods and suite.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Freeman's Journal'' 31 August 1871, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 1a [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000056/18710831/012/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1871 November 28''', George Francis Hamilton and Maud Caroline Lascelles married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;&quot;Rt. Hon. Lord Sir George Francis Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1133.htm#i11323|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1872 January 4, Thursday''', the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard and their suites were reported to &quot;have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel in Dublin.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Miscellany.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Post'' 4 January 1872, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18720104/021/0003. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Morning Mail'' (Dublin) 5 January 1872, Friday: 3 [of 4, digital], Col. 2c [of 10 on digital image]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0006103/18720105/067/0003. The digital image has the last 2 columns of the prior page on this page, so the citation should be to p. 2 [of 4], Col. 8c [of 8].&lt;/ref&gt; Also at the Morrisson's Hotel at this time was Sir Roland Blennerhassett, Bart., M.P.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Dublin Evening'' Mail 5 January 1872, Friday:  3 [of 4], Col. 8b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18720105/028/0003. Same print and digital title, print n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1872 March 2, Saturday''', the ''Weekly Freeman and Irish Agriculturalist'' reported that &quot;Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, and the Hon Mrs Howard and suite, Shelton Abbey, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel.&quot; Two 1-sentence paragraphs later, the paper reported that the same group had &quot;left Morrisson's Hotel for Shelton Abbey.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Weekly Freeman's Journal'' 2 March 1872, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 1a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001446/18720302/062/0007. Print title: ''Weekly Freeman and Irish Agriculturalist'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt; Shelton Abbey was the [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn#Residences|ancestral seat and at this time the country residence]] of the Earls of Wicklow, Arklow, Co. Wicklow.

'''1872 December 13, Friday''', &quot;The Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, and Lady Alice Howard and suite have left Morrisson's Hotel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Freeman's Journal'' 13 December 1872, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000056/18721213/006/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1873 January 14, Saturday''', &quot;Lord Dunally and suite, Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Alice Howard and suite, Lady Louise Howard and suite, and Lady Caroline Howard, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Post'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18730114/049/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1874 December 15, Tuesday''', the Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach hosted a dinner in the Chief Secretary's Lodge, suggesting that this social event might have had a political purpose. Mr. LeFanu cannot be the Irish writer Sheridan Le Fanu, who died 7 February 1873.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-28|title=Sheridan Le Fanu|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheridan_Le_Fanu&amp;oldid=1361491348|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Perhaps this LeFanu is a relation, a son or brother?&lt;blockquote&gt;THE CHIEF SECRETARY’S LODGE.&lt;p&gt;The Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach entertained the following at dinner on Tuesday evening at the Chief Secretary’s Lodge: — Sir Dominic Corrigan, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guinness, Lady Mary Fortescue, the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard, Mr. and Mrs. Percy Bernard, Colonel Henry, R.A., and Mrs. Henry; Mr. Donnelly. C.B., and Mrs. Donnelly; Mr., Mrs., and Miss lsaac; Mr. LeFanu, Colonel Forster, Colonel Hillier, and Mr. Caulfield.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 17 December 1874, Thursday: 4 [of 4; n.p. in print], Col. 1a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18741217/099/0004. Print title: ''The Cork Constitution''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1876 March 23''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Francesca Maria Chamberlayne married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1877 July 25, Wednesday''', Miss Tottenham, Lady Caroline Howard, Miss Colley are reported to have arrived at Merton Lodge in Torquay.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Torquay Directory.&quot; ''Torquay Directory and South Devon Journal'' 25 July 1877, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001246/18770725/085/0004. Same print and digital title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 July 28, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the guests at Merton Lodge in Lincombe Hill Road Middle, Torquay. Other guests listed are Miss Kelly, Mrs. Frank Webber, Miss Tottenham and Miss Colley.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;49. Lincombe Hill Road. Middle.&quot; &quot;Torquay Directory.&quot; ''Torquay Times and South Devon Advertiser'' 28 July 1877, Saturday: 2 [of 8, both print and digital], Col. 3c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001420/18770728/039/0002.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 December 6, Thursday''', donations from the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard (£2 2s.), Lady Alice Howard (£1), Lady Caroline Howard (£1) and Lady Louise Howard (£1) to the Church of Ireland Clergy Widows' and Orphans' Society.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Church.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 11 December 1877, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18771211/076/0003. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 December 22, Saturday''', Sarah Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard were visitors in Dagmar Terrace in Portsmouth. The following are all the people listed as visitors at Dagmar Terrace, with the odd numbering:&lt;blockquote&gt;D&lt;small&gt;AGMAR&lt;/small&gt; T&lt;small&gt;ER&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;RACE&lt;/small&gt;.

# Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, late 60th Rifles, &amp; the Hon Mrs Howard Lady Caroline Howard
# Captain &amp; Mrs. Henderson
## [a] The Hon. Richard and Mrs. Bineham 
# [a] Captain and Mrs. Fearson and family
# Mr.and Mrs. Hall Mrs. and the Misses Buchannans
# The Rev Palms &amp; fam
# [a] Colonel Johnston [a] Mrs. Oldfield [a] Miss Flowers
# Captain Parkinson and family&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Visitors' List.&quot; ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 22 December 1877, Saturday: 3 [of 10, digital and print], Col. 5 [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18771222/027/0003. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal''.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''1878 January 18, Friday''', The ''Dublin Daily Express'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady Caroline Howard arrived yesterday at Kingstown from England.&lt;p&gt;

Captain the Hon. C. Howard and Mrs. Howard have arrived at Kingstown from England.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 19 January 1878, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18780119/113/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1878 January 26, Saturday''', visitors at Dagmar Terrace (in Portsmouth?) were Lady Caroline Howard, listed with Capt. the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, &quot;late 60th Rifles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Visitors' List.&quot; ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 26 January 1878, Saturday: 6 [of 10], Col. 6c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18780126/051/0006. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1878 July 20''', Claud John Hamilton and Carolina Chandos-Pole married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;&quot;Lord Claud John Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110662|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1880 June 2''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Fanny Catherine Wingfield married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1880 December 13, Monday''', Lady Caroline &quot;arrived at Kingstown from London.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 13 December 1880, Monday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18801213/089/0005. Print title: ''Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 July 25, Monday''', the ''Irish Times'' says that Lady Caroline Howard and &quot;the Hon. Mrs. Howard and the Ladies Howard (2) have arrived at Kingstown from England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Irish Times'' 25 July 1881, Monday: 6 [of 8, digital and print], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001683/18810725/124/0006. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 August 10, Wednesday''', the ''Dublin Evening Mail'' says that Lady Caroline Howard &quot;has left Kingstown for England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Mail'' 10 August 1881, Wednesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 9c [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18810810/046/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 October 22, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the visitors staying at the Crown Hotel &quot;during the past week.&quot; The visitors listed are the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;Mr. Thomas Barber, Doctor and Mrs. Ayerst, Miss Noyce, Dr. Wilks, Mr. Nightingale, Mr. and Mrs. J. Hill, Lady Caroline Howard, the Hon. Mrs. Ross, Mr. Masters, Mr. Richardson and friend, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Wilson, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lyndhurst, Oct. 22.&quot; ''Hampshire Advertiser'' 22 October 1881, Saturday: 7 [of  8, both print and digital], Col. 2c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000495/18811022/049/0007. Print title: ''Hampshire Advertiser County Newspaper''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Fixing Things ===
'''1882 January 3, Tuesday''', the Howard women donated to feed poor people at Christmas:
&lt;blockquote&gt;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.&lt;p&gt;

Mr J R Fowler acknowledges with thanks the following for free breakfasts to the poor in the Christian Union Buildings:— Mrs Barker, £5; Mrs Lovell, by Mrs Aimers, 10s; Mrs Jno Figgis, [illegible, shillings]; collected by Miss Carroll, 10s: Capt Thompson, 5s; Mrs O Stoney, 2s 6d; Mrs E H Smyth, £1; A Friend, per Dr Darley, £1; Mrs Lewers, £1; Mr Holmes, 10s; Mr Duffus, 10s; Mr W O'B Smyth, 10s; Hon Mrs Howard, £1; Lady Caroline Howard, £1; Lady Alice Howard, 10s; Lady Louisa Howard, 10s; T C Ratcliffe, per Mrs Smyly, £5; Mrs Hemphill, per Mr G Atkinson, 2s 6d; collected in box, 9d — Total, [illegible12] 10 s 9d. Number present last Sunday, 1,200.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Acknowledgments.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 3 January 1882, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18820103/061/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1882 March 16''', Georgiana Susan Hamilton and Edward Turnour married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1180.htm#i11791|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1882 June 1, Thursday''', the Hon. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard arrived in Kingstown from England.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Fashion.&quot; ''Evening Irish Times'' 1 June 1882, Thursday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archives'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003464/18820601/108/0007. Print title ''Irish Times'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1883 May 28, Monday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard &quot;left Kingstown for England,&quot; as did the Hon. Bourke.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Fashion.&quot; ''Evening Irish Times'' 28 May 1883, Monday: 6 [of 8], Col. 8b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archives'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003464/18830528/092/0006. Print title: ''Irish Times'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1883 November 20''', the marriage between Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill and George Charles Spencer-Churchill was annulled by petition from Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (married in 1869).&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

'''1883 December 27, Thursday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard were invited to the ''déjeuner'' after the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1883#Wedding of William Noble and Grace Elizabeth Lefroy|wedding of Colonel William Noble and Grace Elizabeth Lefroy]].

'''1891 June 2''', Ernest William Hamilton and Pamela Campbell married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;&quot;Pamela Campbell.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21063|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1894 April 10''', Fanny Catherine Wingfield Howard, Dowager 6th Countess of Wicklow married her 2nd husband, Marcus Francis Beresford.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1894 November 1''', James Albert Edward Hamilton and Rosaline Cecilia Caroline Bingham married at St. Paul's Church, Knightsbridge, in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101032|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1895 July 13 to August 7''', the general election of 1895. Following the election, the brother-in-law of Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow's (brother of his first wife Francesca Chamberlayne) was unseated because of allegations of misconduct.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-27|title=Thomas Chamberlayne (cricketer)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Chamberlayne_(cricketer)&amp;oldid=1340809770|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 June 28, Monday''', according to the ''Morning Post'', James Hamilton, 2nd Duke and Maria, Duchess of Abercorn were invited to the [[Social Victorians/Diamond Jubilee Garden Party|Queen's Garden Party]], the official end of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations in London, as were James Albert Edward Hamilton, Marquis and Rosaline, Marchioness of Hamilton.&lt;ref&gt;“The Queen’s Garden Party.” ''Morning Post'' 29 June 1897, Tuesday: 4 [of 12], Cols. 1a–7c [of 7] and 5, Col. 1a–c. ''British Newspaper Archive''  ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000174/18970629/032/0004&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' and ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970629/032/0005&lt;/nowiki&gt;''.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 July 2, Friday''', Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton, the Marquess of Hamilton, and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton. Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended.

'''1902''', Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow and Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton married. (She was the daughter of James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.)&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1902 January 14''', Gladys Mary Hamilton and Ralph Francis Forward-Howard married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21066|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1933 July 11''', Claud Nigel Hamilton and Violet Ruby Ashton married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;&quot;Captain Lord Sir Claud Nigel Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2109.htm#i21081|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==

[[File:Helen-Mary-Theresa-ne-Vane-Tempest-Stewart-Countess-of-Ilchester-when-Lady-Helen-Stewart-as-the-Archduchess-Marie-Christine-of-Austria.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a seated woman richly dressed in an historical costume with a white feather plume in her hair and a fan|Lady Helen Stewart as Arch-duchess Marie Christine of Austria. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]]
=== Lady Alexandra Hamilton ===
Lady Alexandra Hamilton was one of the archduchesses — along with with 3 or 4 other young women — in [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#The Entourage of Maria Thérèse|the entourage of the Marchioness of Londonderry]], who led the Austrian procession as Marie Thérèse, Empress of the Holy Roman Empire.&lt;ref&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 3a}} These young women were present at the ball as the daughters of Marie Thérèse, and the young men dressed as archdukes were present as her sons. Lady Alexandra Hamilton went as &quot;Archduchess Marie-Josepha in the Archduchess Marie-Karoline and Emperor Joseph II section of the Austrian Court of Maria Theresa Quadrille.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 6b}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;&quot;Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

The newspapers report that the archduchesses were all dressed alike, but only one photograph exists of any of these young women in costume — that of [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart|Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart]] (which is shown, right). The newspaper descriptions are on her page, with her portrait in costume, but they apply to all the archduchesses.

=== Lord Frederick Hamilton ===
[[File:Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton Vanity Fair 1895-02-07.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colored drawing of a man in a suit, his hands in his pockets, facing to the right|Lord Frederick Hamilton, ''Vanity Fair'', by &quot;Spy,&quot; 7 February 1895]]
Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton was 6th son and 13th child of the 1st Duke of Abercorn. No photograph of him in costume exists.

He is shown (at left) as he looked in 7 February 1895 in a Spy caricature in ''Vanity Fair''. This caricature portrait, by Leslie Ward (&quot;Spy&quot;) is called ''The Pall Mall Magazine'' and is Number 647 in Vanity Fair's &quot;Statesmen&quot; series.&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-14|title=List of Vanity Fair (British magazine) caricatures (1895–1899)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)_caricatures_(1895%E2%80%931899)&amp;oldid=1195518024|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; He was editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 1896–1900.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-09-23|title=Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton&amp;oldid=1176655264|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton.&lt;/ref&gt;

For the ball, Lord Frederick Hamilton was dressed
*as a &quot;gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth,&quot; wearing &quot;crimson cloth of gold with jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 36, Col. 3b}}
*as a &quot;Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth. Costume of crimson and cloth of g [sic] with jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1b}}
*&quot;in crimson cloth of gold and jeweled belt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses.&quot; London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 7a}}
*&quot;as a gentleman of the court of Queen Elizabeth, was dressed in a costume of crimson cloth-of-gold, with a jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Memoirs ====

* Hamilton, Frederic [sic] Spencer. ''My Yesterdays'' (3 vols.). Hodder and Stoughton, 1920.
*# ''The Days Before Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/daysbeforeyester00hamiuoft/page/n5/mode/2up.
*# ''Vanished Pomps of Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/vanishedpompsofy028823mbp.
*# ''Here, There and Everywhere''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/herethereeverywh0000hami.

[[File:James Hamilton 3rd Duke of Abercorn.png|thumb|alt=Old colored drawing of a man in a 19th-century officer's uniform of the 1st Life Guards with white gloves, a red stripe down the side of his pants and unbuttoned jacket and a hat, holding a white or silver sword under his left arm, facing 1/4 to his right|&quot;He will be the 3rd Duke&quot; (James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton), ''Vanity Fair'' 16 February 1899]]
=== James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton ===
James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton was dressed in a &quot;black velvet tunic; breeches and cloak trimmed jet; large hat, feathers, wig, sword, &amp;c., of the period&quot; of Charles II.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;{{rp|34, Col. 3a}} No photograph of him in costume exists.

A caricature portrait (right) called ''He will be the 3rd Duke'' (James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton) by &quot;Hadge&quot; appeared in the 16 February 1899 issue of ''Vanity Fair'', as Number 739 in its &quot;Men of the Day&quot; series,&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; giving a sense of what he looked like at about the time of the ball.

In 1892 Hamilton joined the 1st Life Guards, so the uniform he is wearing in this portrait is likely that of an officer of the 1st Life Guards.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-12|title=James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=1195216640|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn.&lt;/ref&gt;

James Hamilton's wife Lady Rosalind Hamilton is not reported as having been present at the ball, perhaps because she was pregnant with her second child and gave birth in August, five weeks later, so she was around 8 months pregnant.

=== Ronald Hamilton ===
Mr. Ronald Hamilton, possibly Ronald James Hamilton, was dressed as a &quot;Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth, in black velvet trimmed with jet.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1c}}

== Demographics ==

=== Nationality ===
*The title Duke of Abercorn is in the peerage of Ireland; the Marquess of Hamilton is in the peerage of the U.K.

=== Residences ===

==== The Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and the Earls of Wicklow ====

* Shelton Abbey, Arklow, Co. Wicklow (east coast of Ireland) (until 1951)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-30|title=Shelton Abbey Prison|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shelton_Abbey_Prison&amp;oldid=1361924427|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Family ==
*James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (21 January 1811 – 31 October 1885)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*Louisa Russell Hamilton (– March 1905)
#Lady '''Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton''' Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)
#Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton Lambton (21 July 1835 – 21 January 1871)
#Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton Scott (26 August 1836 – 16 March 1912)
#Lord '''James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn''' (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)
#Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton Edgcumbe (9 January 1840 – 3 September 1874)
#Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton Turnour (7 July 1841 – 23 March 1913)
#Lord '''Claud John Hamilton''' (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)
#Rt. Hon. Lord Sir '''George Francis Hamilton''' (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)
#Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (29 July 1847 – 7 January 1932)
#Lord Ronald Douglas Hamilton (17 March 1849 – DVP&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_2nd_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=969822724|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 6 November 1867)
#Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton Petty-Fitzmaurice, the [[Social Victorians/People/Lansdowne | Marchioness of Lansdowne]] (17 December 1850 – 21 October 1932)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#Lord Cosmo Hamilton (16 April 1853 – 16 April 1853)
#Lord '''Frederick Spencer Hamilton''' (13 October 1856 – 11 August 1928)
#Lord '''Ernest William Hamilton''' (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)


*Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
*Thomas George Anson, 2nd Earl of Lichfield (15 August 1825 – 7 January 1892)
#Lady Evelyn Anson ( – 2 July 1895)
#Thomas Francis Anson, 3rd Earl of Lichfield (31 January 1856 – 29 July 1918)
#Hon. Sir George Augustus Anson (22 December 1857 – 25 May 1947)
#Major Hon. Henry James Anson (29 December 1858 – 26 February 1904)
#Lady Florence Beatrice Anson (1860 – 25 September 1946)
#Hon. Frederic William Anson (4 February 1862 – 2 April 1917)
#Hon. Claud Anson (11 January 1864 – 25 December 1947)
#Lady Beatrice Anson (1865 – 15 December 1919)
#Hon. Francis Anson (7 March 1867 – 13 April 1928)
#Lady Mary Maud Anson (1869 – 22 September 1961)
#Lady Edith Anson (1870 – 8 October 1932)
#Hon. William Anson (19 April 1872 – 22 June 1926)
#Hon. Alfred Anson (15 April 1876 – 25 March 1944)


*James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;
*Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (23 July 1848 – 10 May 1929)&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
#James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)
#Claud Penn Alexander Hamilton (18 October 1871 – 18 October 1871)
#Charlie Hamilton (10 April 1874 – 10 April 1874)
#'''Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton''' (23 January 1876 – 10 October 1918)
#Claud Francis Hamilton (25 October 1878 – 25 December 1878)
#Gladys Mary Hamilton Forward-Howard (10 December 1880 – 12 March 1917)
#Arthur John Hamilton (20 August 1883 – 6 November 1914)
#(unnamed son) Hamilton (31 October 1886 – 31 October 1886)
#Claud Nigel Hamilton (10 November 1889 – 22 August 1975)&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;


* '''James Albert Edward Hamilton''', Marquess of Hamilton and 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;
* Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham (26 February 1869 – 18 January 1958)&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;
*# Lady Mary Cecilia Rhodesia Hamilton (21 January 1896 – 5 September 1984)
*# Lady Cynthia Elinor Beatrix Hamilton (16 August 1897 – 4 December 1972)
*# Lady Katharine Hamilton (25 February 1900 – 28 April 1985)
*# James Edward Hamilton, 4th Duke of Abercorn (29 February 1904 – 4 June 1979)
*# Captain Lord Claud David Hamilton (13 February 1907 – 15 February 1968)


*Claud John Hamilton (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
*Carolina Chandos-Pole Hamilton (19 July 1857 – 21 September 1911)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Carolina Chandos-Pole.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110663|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#Colonel Gilbert Claud Hamilton (21 April 1879 – 30 March 1943)
#Ida Hamilton (23 July 1883 – November 1970)


*George Francis Hamilton (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
*Lady Maud Caroline Lascelles Hamilton (1846 – 14 April 1938)
#'''Ronald James Hamilton''' (26 September 1872 – 22 January 1958)
#Anthony George Hamilton (17 December 1874 – 11 July 1936)
#Robert Cecil Hamilton (31 January 1882 – 31 July 1947)


*Ernest William Hamilton (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lord Ernest William Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21062|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Pamela Campbell Hamilton ( – 11 May 1931)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;
#Guy Ernest Frederick Hamilton (11 November 1894 – 23 November 1914)
#Mary Brenda Hamilton (28 March 1897 – 14 March 1985)
#Jean Barbara Hamilton (6 September 1898 – 2 November 1989)
#John George Peter Hamilton (15 October 1900 – 17 June 1967)


=== Earls of Wicklow ===

* Charles Hamilton (1772 – 29 September 1857)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21387|title=Charles Hamilton. Person Page #2139|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Marianne '''Caroline Tighe''' ( – 29 July 1861)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p62375.htm#i623745|title=Marianne Caroline Tighe. Person Page #62375|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; – 13 March 1892)
*# Caroline Elizabeth Hamilton ( – 31 May 1909)
*# Mary Hamilton
*# Charles William Hamilton (1 April 1802 – 16 February 1880)
*# William Tighe Hamilton (31 March 1807 – )
*# Frederick John Henry Fownes Hamilton (27 July 1816 – 1893)


* Rev. Hon. Francis Howard (12 January 1797 – 16 February 1857)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21391|title=Rev. Hon. Francis Howard. Person Page #2140|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Frances Beresford ( – 17 November 1833)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3227.htm#i32266|title=Frances Beresford. Person Page #3227|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# William George Howard (25 April 1825 – 12 October 1864)
* '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000572704|title=Tighe, Hamilton and Howard Papers,|date=1737|website=catalogue.nli.ie|language=English|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; – 13 March 1892)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2141.htm#i21405|title=Sarah Hamilton. Person Page #2141|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# 4 unnamed daughters [per The Peerage; The NLI has 3 daughters]
*# Lady Alice Howard
*# Lady Louisa 'Loulie' Howard
*# Lady Caroline Howard (1836–1923)&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;
*# Charles Francis Arnold Howard, '''5th Earl of Wicklow''' (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881)
*# Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)


* Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* Francesca Maria Chamberlayne ( – 1877)
*# Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow (24 December 1877 – 11 October 1946)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21394|title=Cecil Ralph Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow. Person Page 2140.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Fanny Catherine Wingfield (c. 1860 – 3 February 1914)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21388|title=Fanny Catherine Wingfield. Person Page 2139.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# Hon. Cecil Mervyn Malcolm Howard (18 November 1881 – 16 April 1882)
*# Hon. Hugh Melville Howard (28 March 1883 – 17 February 1919)
* Marcus Francis Beresford (26 December 1862 – 14 December 1896)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3186.htm#i31858|title=Marcus Francis Beresford. Person Page #3186.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Memoirs and Archives ==

# The Abercorn Papers: GB 0255 PRONI/D623 (found via https://iar.ie/archive/abercorn-papers). A descriptive list is available to search online at: http://www.proni.gov.uk/. The collection is arranged as follows: D623/A Correspondence D623/B Title deeds and leases D623/C Rentals, accounts and vouchers D623/D Maps, plans, surveys, inventories and valuations D623/E Photographs, illuminations, addresses and albums D623/F Material still at Baronscourt D623/G Miscellaneous
#Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton (#64 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who were present]]) attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton (#84), the Marquess of Hamilton (#657), and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton (#105). Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended.

== Questions and Notes ==
#DVP = decessit vita patris, died while the father was still living
#Mr. Ronald Hamilton cannot be Frederick Hamilton's brother, who should be Lord Ronald Hamilton rather than Mr. Ronald Hamilton, and he died in 1867. He could be this Ronald Hamilton, who would be a Mr. Hamilton: http://www.thepeerage.com/p2163.htm#i21622. He was Lady Alexandra's cousin and nephew of the 1st Duke of Abercorn.
#A Mr. Hamilton is mentioned in the ''Gentlewoman'' article: &quot;Mr. Hamilton (Elizabethan costume), black velvet, trimmed gold.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;{{rp|34, Col. 1c}} But a later reference in this same article to Mr. Ronald Hamilton matches the description in the ''Morning Post'' article, saying he wore black velvet with jet, rather than gold trim: &quot;'''Mr. Ronald Hamilton''' (gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth), black velvet with jet.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; (36, Col. 3b) I believe the other Mr. Hamilton is Mr. [[Social Victorians/People/Cole-Hamilton|Claud Cole-Hamilton]], particularly since Mrs. Hamilton was dressed as Amy Robsart and thus must be Lucy Charlewood Cole-Hamilton because of the description of her costume in the Album of photographs given to the Duchess of Devonshire later.
#Claud John Hamilton is probably who attended the social events, because the other Claud, of whatever generation either died too young or was born too late.
== Footnotes ==
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      <text bytes="41948" sha1="r2q9ihm9grryc0gk02rdt2dns9a8dhr" xml:space="preserve">== Overview ==
The Dukedom of Abercorn is the last non-royal dukedom created. Queen Victoria created it in 1869. 

This page includes the Earl of Wicklow, the family of which married into the Abercorn family in 1816 when William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Cecil Frances Hamilton — the daughter and only child of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-24|title=William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Howard,_4th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1360966619|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-08-26|title=Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Howard,_5th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1242455245|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton (daughter of the 2nd Duke of Abercorn) in 1902.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-05|title=Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Howard,_6th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1304372795|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The National Library of Ireland has papers from Sarah Howard and her children, including Lady Caroline Howard. 

== Also Known As ==
*Family name: Hamilton
*the Duke of Abercorn
**James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10144.htm#i101433|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;&quot;James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101033|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (3 January 1913 – 12 September 1953)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;&quot;James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101031|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*the Duchess of Abercorn
**Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)
**Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)
*Dowager Duchess of Hamilton
**Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – March 1905)
**Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (3 January 1913 – )
*Subsidiary titles:
**Marquess of Hamilton (courtesy title for the heir apparent)
***James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 12 September 1953)
**Viscount Strabane (courtesy title for the heir apparent of the Marquess of Hamilton)

== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==
=== Friends ===
*The Royal Family, especially [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Alexandra, Princess of Wales | Alexandra, Princess]] of Wales, in the generation of the 2nd duke.

== Timeline ==
A lot of people are treated on this page, so this timeline will be somewhat chaotic to read. These events probably didn't directly affect every single person treated on this page, but discussions about them probably circulated through the families. The detail about Lady Caroline Howard and her mother, the Hon. Susan Howard, is to make these people, whose papers are in the National Library of Ireland, more concrete and known.

'''1832 October 25''', James Hamilton and Louisa Russell married at Gordon Castle, Fochabers, Morayshire, in Scotland.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

'''1854 May 23''', Beatrix Frances Hamilton and George Frederick D'Arcy Lambton married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1147.htm#i11470|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1855 April 10''', Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton and Thomas George Anson married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Harriett Georgiana Louisa Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1034.htm#i10332|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1858 October 26''', Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton and William Henry Edgcumbe married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1135.htm#i11344|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1859 November 22''', Louisa Jane Hamilton and William Montagu Douglass Scott married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10359.htm#i103583|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1868''', the title the Duke of Abercorn was created.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-06|title=James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_1st_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=966293304|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1869 January 7''', James Hamilton (2nd Duke) and Maria Anna Curzon-Howe married at St. George's Church, St. George Street, Hanover Square, in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Mary Anna Curzon.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101034|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1869 November 8''', there may have been a double wedding: Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton and George Charles Spencer-Churchill married&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10595.htm#i105942|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and Maud Evelyn Hamilton and Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1163.htm#i11629|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1871 January''' '''4, Wednesday''', Lady Caroline Howard was invited to a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#4 January 1871, Wednesday|ball hosted by Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards]] (probably in Coventry?).

'''1871 February 17, Friday''', Lady Caroline Howard attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball|ball hosted by the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; in Birmingham]].

'''1871 May 9, Tuesday''', Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Alice Howard and Lady Louisa Howard were [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room|presented to Queen Victoria at a Drawing-room]] by their mother, the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard.

'''1871 August 31, Thursday''', The Freeman's Journal reported that &quot;The Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and suite have arrived at the Morrisson Hotel.&quot;&lt;blockquote&gt;The following are amongst the latest arrivals at the Morrisson Hotel: — Mrs. Percival Maxwell and the Misses Maxwell and suite, Mr and Mrs Herbert Read and suite, Rev H R Heywood, and Master H A Heywood, Mr F H Downing, Mr M Neil, Mr and Mrs Herbert and suite, Mr Abbott, Mr D'Arcy, Mr and Mrs G Woods and suite.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Freeman's Journal'' 31 August 1871, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 1a [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000056/18710831/012/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1871 November 28''', George Francis Hamilton and Maud Caroline Lascelles married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;&quot;Rt. Hon. Lord Sir George Francis Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1133.htm#i11323|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1872 January 4, Thursday''', the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard and their suites were reported to &quot;have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel in Dublin.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Miscellany.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Post'' 4 January 1872, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18720104/021/0003. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Morning Mail'' (Dublin) 5 January 1872, Friday: 3 [of 4, digital], Col. 2c [of 10 on digital image]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0006103/18720105/067/0003. The digital image has the last 2 columns of the prior page on this page, so the citation should be to p. 2 [of 4], Col. 8c [of 8].&lt;/ref&gt; Also at the Morrisson's Hotel at this time was Sir Roland Blennerhassett, Bart., M.P.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Dublin Evening'' Mail 5 January 1872, Friday:  3 [of 4], Col. 8b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18720105/028/0003. Same print and digital title, print n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1872 March 2, Saturday''', the ''Weekly Freeman and Irish Agriculturalist'' reported that &quot;Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, and the Hon Mrs Howard and suite, Shelton Abbey, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel.&quot; Two 1-sentence paragraphs later, the paper reported that the same group had &quot;left Morrisson's Hotel for Shelton Abbey.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Weekly Freeman's Journal'' 2 March 1872, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 1a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001446/18720302/062/0007. Print title: ''Weekly Freeman and Irish Agriculturalist'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt; Shelton Abbey was the [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn#Residences|ancestral seat and at this time the country residence]] of the Earls of Wicklow, Arklow, Co. Wicklow.

'''1872 December 13, Friday''', &quot;The Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, and Lady Alice Howard and suite have left Morrisson's Hotel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Freeman's Journal'' 13 December 1872, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000056/18721213/006/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1873 January''' '''13, Monday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard, the Hon. Lady Alice Howard and the Hon. Lady Louisa Howard attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#Ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge|Marquis of Hartington's ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge]]. It is not clear why Lady Caroline Howard's name is not mentioned.

'''1873 January 14, Tuesday''', &quot;Lord Dunally and suite, Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Alice Howard and suite, Lady Louise Howard and suite, and Lady Caroline Howard, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Post'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18730114/049/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; Since they attended a ball the night before, perhaps they had already arrived.

'''1874 December 15, Tuesday''', the Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach hosted a dinner in the Chief Secretary's Lodge, suggesting that this social event might have had a political purpose. Mr. LeFanu cannot be the Irish writer Sheridan Le Fanu, who died 7 February 1873.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-28|title=Sheridan Le Fanu|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheridan_Le_Fanu&amp;oldid=1361491348|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Perhaps this LeFanu is a relation, a son or brother?&lt;blockquote&gt;THE CHIEF SECRETARY’S LODGE.&lt;p&gt;The Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach entertained the following at dinner on Tuesday evening at the Chief Secretary’s Lodge: — Sir Dominic Corrigan, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guinness, Lady Mary Fortescue, the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard, Mr. and Mrs. Percy Bernard, Colonel Henry, R.A., and Mrs. Henry; Mr. Donnelly. C.B., and Mrs. Donnelly; Mr., Mrs., and Miss lsaac; Mr. LeFanu, Colonel Forster, Colonel Hillier, and Mr. Caulfield.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 17 December 1874, Thursday: 4 [of 4; n.p. in print], Col. 1a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18741217/099/0004. Print title: ''The Cork Constitution''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1876 March 23''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Francesca Maria Chamberlayne married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1877 July 25, Wednesday''', Miss Tottenham, Lady Caroline Howard, Miss Colley are reported to have arrived at Merton Lodge in Torquay.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Torquay Directory.&quot; ''Torquay Directory and South Devon Journal'' 25 July 1877, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001246/18770725/085/0004. Same print and digital title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 July 28, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the guests at Merton Lodge in Lincombe Hill Road Middle, Torquay. Other guests listed are Miss Kelly, Mrs. Frank Webber, Miss Tottenham and Miss Colley.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;49. Lincombe Hill Road. Middle.&quot; &quot;Torquay Directory.&quot; ''Torquay Times and South Devon Advertiser'' 28 July 1877, Saturday: 2 [of 8, both print and digital], Col. 3c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001420/18770728/039/0002.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 December 6, Thursday''', donations from the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard (£2 2s.), Lady Alice Howard (£1), Lady Caroline Howard (£1) and Lady Louise Howard (£1) to the Church of Ireland Clergy Widows' and Orphans' Society.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Church.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 11 December 1877, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18771211/076/0003. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 December 22, Saturday''', Sarah Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard were visitors in Dagmar Terrace in Portsmouth. The following are all the people listed as visitors at Dagmar Terrace, with the odd numbering:&lt;blockquote&gt;D&lt;small&gt;AGMAR&lt;/small&gt; T&lt;small&gt;ER&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;RACE&lt;/small&gt;.

# Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, late 60th Rifles, &amp; the Hon Mrs Howard Lady Caroline Howard
# Captain &amp; Mrs. Henderson
## [a] The Hon. Richard and Mrs. Bineham 
# [a] Captain and Mrs. Fearson and family
# Mr.and Mrs. Hall Mrs. and the Misses Buchannans
# The Rev Palms &amp; fam
# [a] Colonel Johnston [a] Mrs. Oldfield [a] Miss Flowers
# Captain Parkinson and family&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Visitors' List.&quot; ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 22 December 1877, Saturday: 3 [of 10, digital and print], Col. 5 [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18771222/027/0003. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal''.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''1878 January 18, Friday''', The ''Dublin Daily Express'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady Caroline Howard arrived yesterday at Kingstown from England.&lt;p&gt;

Captain the Hon. C. Howard and Mrs. Howard have arrived at Kingstown from England.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 19 January 1878, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18780119/113/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1878 January 26, Saturday''', visitors at Dagmar Terrace (in Portsmouth?) were Lady Caroline Howard, listed with Capt. the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, &quot;late 60th Rifles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Visitors' List.&quot; ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 26 January 1878, Saturday: 6 [of 10], Col. 6c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18780126/051/0006. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1878 July 20''', Claud John Hamilton and Carolina Chandos-Pole married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;&quot;Lord Claud John Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110662|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1880 June 2''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Fanny Catherine Wingfield married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1880 December 13, Monday''', Lady Caroline &quot;arrived at Kingstown from London.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 13 December 1880, Monday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18801213/089/0005. Print title: ''Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 July 25, Monday''', the ''Irish Times'' says that Lady Caroline Howard and &quot;the Hon. Mrs. Howard and the Ladies Howard (2) have arrived at Kingstown from England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Irish Times'' 25 July 1881, Monday: 6 [of 8, digital and print], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001683/18810725/124/0006. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 August 10, Wednesday''', the ''Dublin Evening Mail'' says that Lady Caroline Howard &quot;has left Kingstown for England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Mail'' 10 August 1881, Wednesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 9c [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18810810/046/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 October 22, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the visitors staying at the Crown Hotel &quot;during the past week.&quot; The visitors listed are the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;Mr. Thomas Barber, Doctor and Mrs. Ayerst, Miss Noyce, Dr. Wilks, Mr. Nightingale, Mr. and Mrs. J. Hill, Lady Caroline Howard, the Hon. Mrs. Ross, Mr. Masters, Mr. Richardson and friend, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Wilson, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lyndhurst, Oct. 22.&quot; ''Hampshire Advertiser'' 22 October 1881, Saturday: 7 [of  8, both print and digital], Col. 2c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000495/18811022/049/0007. Print title: ''Hampshire Advertiser County Newspaper''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Fixing Things ===
'''1882 January 3, Tuesday''', the Howard women donated to feed poor people at Christmas:
&lt;blockquote&gt;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.&lt;p&gt;

Mr J R Fowler acknowledges with thanks the following for free breakfasts to the poor in the Christian Union Buildings:— Mrs Barker, £5; Mrs Lovell, by Mrs Aimers, 10s; Mrs Jno Figgis, [illegible, shillings]; collected by Miss Carroll, 10s: Capt Thompson, 5s; Mrs O Stoney, 2s 6d; Mrs E H Smyth, £1; A Friend, per Dr Darley, £1; Mrs Lewers, £1; Mr Holmes, 10s; Mr Duffus, 10s; Mr W O'B Smyth, 10s; Hon Mrs Howard, £1; Lady Caroline Howard, £1; Lady Alice Howard, 10s; Lady Louisa Howard, 10s; T C Ratcliffe, per Mrs Smyly, £5; Mrs Hemphill, per Mr G Atkinson, 2s 6d; collected in box, 9d — Total, [illegible12] 10 s 9d. Number present last Sunday, 1,200.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Acknowledgments.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 3 January 1882, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18820103/061/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1882 March 16''', Georgiana Susan Hamilton and Edward Turnour married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1180.htm#i11791|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1882 June 1, Thursday''', the Hon. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard arrived in Kingstown from England.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Fashion.&quot; ''Evening Irish Times'' 1 June 1882, Thursday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archives'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003464/18820601/108/0007. Print title ''Irish Times'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1883 May 28, Monday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard &quot;left Kingstown for England,&quot; as did the Hon. Bourke.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Fashion.&quot; ''Evening Irish Times'' 28 May 1883, Monday: 6 [of 8], Col. 8b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archives'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003464/18830528/092/0006. Print title: ''Irish Times'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1883 November 20''', the marriage between Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill and George Charles Spencer-Churchill was annulled by petition from Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (married in 1869).&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

'''1883 December 27, Thursday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard were invited to the ''déjeuner'' after the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1883#Wedding of William Noble and Grace Elizabeth Lefroy|wedding of Colonel William Noble and Grace Elizabeth Lefroy]].

'''1891 June 2''', Ernest William Hamilton and Pamela Campbell married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;&quot;Pamela Campbell.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21063|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1894 April 10''', Fanny Catherine Wingfield Howard, Dowager 6th Countess of Wicklow married her 2nd husband, Marcus Francis Beresford.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1894 November 1''', James Albert Edward Hamilton and Rosaline Cecilia Caroline Bingham married at St. Paul's Church, Knightsbridge, in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101032|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1895 July 13 to August 7''', the general election of 1895. Following the election, the brother-in-law of Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow's (brother of his first wife Francesca Chamberlayne) was unseated because of allegations of misconduct.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-27|title=Thomas Chamberlayne (cricketer)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Chamberlayne_(cricketer)&amp;oldid=1340809770|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 June 28, Monday''', according to the ''Morning Post'', James Hamilton, 2nd Duke and Maria, Duchess of Abercorn were invited to the [[Social Victorians/Diamond Jubilee Garden Party|Queen's Garden Party]], the official end of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations in London, as were James Albert Edward Hamilton, Marquis and Rosaline, Marchioness of Hamilton.&lt;ref&gt;“The Queen’s Garden Party.” ''Morning Post'' 29 June 1897, Tuesday: 4 [of 12], Cols. 1a–7c [of 7] and 5, Col. 1a–c. ''British Newspaper Archive''  ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000174/18970629/032/0004&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' and ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970629/032/0005&lt;/nowiki&gt;''.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 July 2, Friday''', Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton, the Marquess of Hamilton, and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton. Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended.

'''1902''', Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow and Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton married. (She was the daughter of James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.)&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1902 January 14''', Gladys Mary Hamilton and Ralph Francis Forward-Howard married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21066|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1933 July 11''', Claud Nigel Hamilton and Violet Ruby Ashton married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;&quot;Captain Lord Sir Claud Nigel Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2109.htm#i21081|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==

[[File:Helen-Mary-Theresa-ne-Vane-Tempest-Stewart-Countess-of-Ilchester-when-Lady-Helen-Stewart-as-the-Archduchess-Marie-Christine-of-Austria.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a seated woman richly dressed in an historical costume with a white feather plume in her hair and a fan|Lady Helen Stewart as Arch-duchess Marie Christine of Austria. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]]
=== Lady Alexandra Hamilton ===
Lady Alexandra Hamilton was one of the archduchesses — along with with 3 or 4 other young women — in [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#The Entourage of Maria Thérèse|the entourage of the Marchioness of Londonderry]], who led the Austrian procession as Marie Thérèse, Empress of the Holy Roman Empire.&lt;ref&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 3a}} These young women were present at the ball as the daughters of Marie Thérèse, and the young men dressed as archdukes were present as her sons. Lady Alexandra Hamilton went as &quot;Archduchess Marie-Josepha in the Archduchess Marie-Karoline and Emperor Joseph II section of the Austrian Court of Maria Theresa Quadrille.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 6b}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;&quot;Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

The newspapers report that the archduchesses were all dressed alike, but only one photograph exists of any of these young women in costume — that of [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart|Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart]] (which is shown, right). The newspaper descriptions are on her page, with her portrait in costume, but they apply to all the archduchesses.

=== Lord Frederick Hamilton ===
[[File:Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton Vanity Fair 1895-02-07.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colored drawing of a man in a suit, his hands in his pockets, facing to the right|Lord Frederick Hamilton, ''Vanity Fair'', by &quot;Spy,&quot; 7 February 1895]]
Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton was 6th son and 13th child of the 1st Duke of Abercorn. No photograph of him in costume exists.

He is shown (at left) as he looked in 7 February 1895 in a Spy caricature in ''Vanity Fair''. This caricature portrait, by Leslie Ward (&quot;Spy&quot;) is called ''The Pall Mall Magazine'' and is Number 647 in Vanity Fair's &quot;Statesmen&quot; series.&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-14|title=List of Vanity Fair (British magazine) caricatures (1895–1899)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)_caricatures_(1895%E2%80%931899)&amp;oldid=1195518024|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; He was editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 1896–1900.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-09-23|title=Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton&amp;oldid=1176655264|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton.&lt;/ref&gt;

For the ball, Lord Frederick Hamilton was dressed
*as a &quot;gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth,&quot; wearing &quot;crimson cloth of gold with jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 36, Col. 3b}}
*as a &quot;Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth. Costume of crimson and cloth of g [sic] with jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1b}}
*&quot;in crimson cloth of gold and jeweled belt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses.&quot; London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 7a}}
*&quot;as a gentleman of the court of Queen Elizabeth, was dressed in a costume of crimson cloth-of-gold, with a jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Memoirs ====

* Hamilton, Frederic [sic] Spencer. ''My Yesterdays'' (3 vols.). Hodder and Stoughton, 1920.
*# ''The Days Before Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/daysbeforeyester00hamiuoft/page/n5/mode/2up.
*# ''Vanished Pomps of Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/vanishedpompsofy028823mbp.
*# ''Here, There and Everywhere''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/herethereeverywh0000hami.

[[File:James Hamilton 3rd Duke of Abercorn.png|thumb|alt=Old colored drawing of a man in a 19th-century officer's uniform of the 1st Life Guards with white gloves, a red stripe down the side of his pants and unbuttoned jacket and a hat, holding a white or silver sword under his left arm, facing 1/4 to his right|&quot;He will be the 3rd Duke&quot; (James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton), ''Vanity Fair'' 16 February 1899]]
=== James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton ===
James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton was dressed in a &quot;black velvet tunic; breeches and cloak trimmed jet; large hat, feathers, wig, sword, &amp;c., of the period&quot; of Charles II.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;{{rp|34, Col. 3a}} No photograph of him in costume exists.

A caricature portrait (right) called ''He will be the 3rd Duke'' (James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton) by &quot;Hadge&quot; appeared in the 16 February 1899 issue of ''Vanity Fair'', as Number 739 in its &quot;Men of the Day&quot; series,&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; giving a sense of what he looked like at about the time of the ball.

In 1892 Hamilton joined the 1st Life Guards, so the uniform he is wearing in this portrait is likely that of an officer of the 1st Life Guards.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-12|title=James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=1195216640|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn.&lt;/ref&gt;

James Hamilton's wife Lady Rosalind Hamilton is not reported as having been present at the ball, perhaps because she was pregnant with her second child and gave birth in August, five weeks later, so she was around 8 months pregnant.

=== Ronald Hamilton ===
Mr. Ronald Hamilton, possibly Ronald James Hamilton, was dressed as a &quot;Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth, in black velvet trimmed with jet.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1c}}

== Demographics ==

=== Nationality ===
*The title Duke of Abercorn is in the peerage of Ireland; the Marquess of Hamilton is in the peerage of the U.K.

=== Residences ===

==== The Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and the Earls of Wicklow ====

* Shelton Abbey, Arklow, Co. Wicklow (east coast of Ireland) (until 1951)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-30|title=Shelton Abbey Prison|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shelton_Abbey_Prison&amp;oldid=1361924427|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Family ==
*James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (21 January 1811 – 31 October 1885)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*Louisa Russell Hamilton (– March 1905)
#Lady '''Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton''' Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)
#Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton Lambton (21 July 1835 – 21 January 1871)
#Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton Scott (26 August 1836 – 16 March 1912)
#Lord '''James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn''' (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)
#Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton Edgcumbe (9 January 1840 – 3 September 1874)
#Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton Turnour (7 July 1841 – 23 March 1913)
#Lord '''Claud John Hamilton''' (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)
#Rt. Hon. Lord Sir '''George Francis Hamilton''' (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)
#Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (29 July 1847 – 7 January 1932)
#Lord Ronald Douglas Hamilton (17 March 1849 – DVP&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_2nd_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=969822724|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 6 November 1867)
#Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton Petty-Fitzmaurice, the [[Social Victorians/People/Lansdowne | Marchioness of Lansdowne]] (17 December 1850 – 21 October 1932)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#Lord Cosmo Hamilton (16 April 1853 – 16 April 1853)
#Lord '''Frederick Spencer Hamilton''' (13 October 1856 – 11 August 1928)
#Lord '''Ernest William Hamilton''' (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)


*Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
*Thomas George Anson, 2nd Earl of Lichfield (15 August 1825 – 7 January 1892)
#Lady Evelyn Anson ( – 2 July 1895)
#Thomas Francis Anson, 3rd Earl of Lichfield (31 January 1856 – 29 July 1918)
#Hon. Sir George Augustus Anson (22 December 1857 – 25 May 1947)
#Major Hon. Henry James Anson (29 December 1858 – 26 February 1904)
#Lady Florence Beatrice Anson (1860 – 25 September 1946)
#Hon. Frederic William Anson (4 February 1862 – 2 April 1917)
#Hon. Claud Anson (11 January 1864 – 25 December 1947)
#Lady Beatrice Anson (1865 – 15 December 1919)
#Hon. Francis Anson (7 March 1867 – 13 April 1928)
#Lady Mary Maud Anson (1869 – 22 September 1961)
#Lady Edith Anson (1870 – 8 October 1932)
#Hon. William Anson (19 April 1872 – 22 June 1926)
#Hon. Alfred Anson (15 April 1876 – 25 March 1944)


*James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;
*Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (23 July 1848 – 10 May 1929)&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
#James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)
#Claud Penn Alexander Hamilton (18 October 1871 – 18 October 1871)
#Charlie Hamilton (10 April 1874 – 10 April 1874)
#'''Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton''' (23 January 1876 – 10 October 1918)
#Claud Francis Hamilton (25 October 1878 – 25 December 1878)
#Gladys Mary Hamilton Forward-Howard (10 December 1880 – 12 March 1917)
#Arthur John Hamilton (20 August 1883 – 6 November 1914)
#(unnamed son) Hamilton (31 October 1886 – 31 October 1886)
#Claud Nigel Hamilton (10 November 1889 – 22 August 1975)&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;


* '''James Albert Edward Hamilton''', Marquess of Hamilton and 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;
* Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham (26 February 1869 – 18 January 1958)&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;
*# Lady Mary Cecilia Rhodesia Hamilton (21 January 1896 – 5 September 1984)
*# Lady Cynthia Elinor Beatrix Hamilton (16 August 1897 – 4 December 1972)
*# Lady Katharine Hamilton (25 February 1900 – 28 April 1985)
*# James Edward Hamilton, 4th Duke of Abercorn (29 February 1904 – 4 June 1979)
*# Captain Lord Claud David Hamilton (13 February 1907 – 15 February 1968)


*Claud John Hamilton (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
*Carolina Chandos-Pole Hamilton (19 July 1857 – 21 September 1911)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Carolina Chandos-Pole.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110663|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#Colonel Gilbert Claud Hamilton (21 April 1879 – 30 March 1943)
#Ida Hamilton (23 July 1883 – November 1970)


*George Francis Hamilton (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
*Lady Maud Caroline Lascelles Hamilton (1846 – 14 April 1938)
#'''Ronald James Hamilton''' (26 September 1872 – 22 January 1958)
#Anthony George Hamilton (17 December 1874 – 11 July 1936)
#Robert Cecil Hamilton (31 January 1882 – 31 July 1947)


*Ernest William Hamilton (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lord Ernest William Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21062|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Pamela Campbell Hamilton ( – 11 May 1931)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;
#Guy Ernest Frederick Hamilton (11 November 1894 – 23 November 1914)
#Mary Brenda Hamilton (28 March 1897 – 14 March 1985)
#Jean Barbara Hamilton (6 September 1898 – 2 November 1989)
#John George Peter Hamilton (15 October 1900 – 17 June 1967)


=== Earls of Wicklow ===

* Charles Hamilton (1772 – 29 September 1857)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21387|title=Charles Hamilton. Person Page #2139|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Marianne '''Caroline Tighe''' ( – 29 July 1861)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p62375.htm#i623745|title=Marianne Caroline Tighe. Person Page #62375|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; – 13 March 1892)
*# Caroline Elizabeth Hamilton ( – 31 May 1909)
*# Mary Hamilton
*# Charles William Hamilton (1 April 1802 – 16 February 1880)
*# William Tighe Hamilton (31 March 1807 – )
*# Frederick John Henry Fownes Hamilton (27 July 1816 – 1893)


* Rev. Hon. Francis Howard (12 January 1797 – 16 February 1857)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21391|title=Rev. Hon. Francis Howard. Person Page #2140|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Frances Beresford ( – 17 November 1833)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3227.htm#i32266|title=Frances Beresford. Person Page #3227|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# William George Howard (25 April 1825 – 12 October 1864)
* '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000572704|title=Tighe, Hamilton and Howard Papers,|date=1737|website=catalogue.nli.ie|language=English|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; – 13 March 1892)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2141.htm#i21405|title=Sarah Hamilton. Person Page #2141|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# 4 unnamed daughters [per The Peerage; The NLI has 3 daughters]
*# Lady Alice Howard
*# Lady Louisa 'Loulie' Howard
*# Lady Caroline Howard (1836–1923)&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;
*# Charles Francis Arnold Howard, '''5th Earl of Wicklow''' (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881)
*# Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)


* Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* Francesca Maria Chamberlayne ( – 1877)
*# Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow (24 December 1877 – 11 October 1946)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21394|title=Cecil Ralph Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow. Person Page 2140.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Fanny Catherine Wingfield (c. 1860 – 3 February 1914)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21388|title=Fanny Catherine Wingfield. Person Page 2139.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# Hon. Cecil Mervyn Malcolm Howard (18 November 1881 – 16 April 1882)
*# Hon. Hugh Melville Howard (28 March 1883 – 17 February 1919)
* Marcus Francis Beresford (26 December 1862 – 14 December 1896)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3186.htm#i31858|title=Marcus Francis Beresford. Person Page #3186.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Memoirs and Archives ==

# The Abercorn Papers: GB 0255 PRONI/D623 (found via https://iar.ie/archive/abercorn-papers). A descriptive list is available to search online at: http://www.proni.gov.uk/. The collection is arranged as follows: D623/A Correspondence D623/B Title deeds and leases D623/C Rentals, accounts and vouchers D623/D Maps, plans, surveys, inventories and valuations D623/E Photographs, illuminations, addresses and albums D623/F Material still at Baronscourt D623/G Miscellaneous
#Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton (#64 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who were present]]) attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton (#84), the Marquess of Hamilton (#657), and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton (#105). Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended.

== Questions and Notes ==
#DVP = decessit vita patris, died while the father was still living
#Mr. Ronald Hamilton cannot be Frederick Hamilton's brother, who should be Lord Ronald Hamilton rather than Mr. Ronald Hamilton, and he died in 1867. He could be this Ronald Hamilton, who would be a Mr. Hamilton: http://www.thepeerage.com/p2163.htm#i21622. He was Lady Alexandra's cousin and nephew of the 1st Duke of Abercorn.
#A Mr. Hamilton is mentioned in the ''Gentlewoman'' article: &quot;Mr. Hamilton (Elizabethan costume), black velvet, trimmed gold.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;{{rp|34, Col. 1c}} But a later reference in this same article to Mr. Ronald Hamilton matches the description in the ''Morning Post'' article, saying he wore black velvet with jet, rather than gold trim: &quot;'''Mr. Ronald Hamilton''' (gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth), black velvet with jet.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; (36, Col. 3b) I believe the other Mr. Hamilton is Mr. [[Social Victorians/People/Cole-Hamilton|Claud Cole-Hamilton]], particularly since Mrs. Hamilton was dressed as Amy Robsart and thus must be Lucy Charlewood Cole-Hamilton because of the description of her costume in the Album of photographs given to the Duchess of Devonshire later.
#Claud John Hamilton is probably who attended the social events, because the other Claud, of whatever generation either died too young or was born too late.
== Footnotes ==
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    <title>Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s</title>
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      <text bytes="31100" sha1="johkx6cxldnt55nzcloa16n4ewikokh" xml:space="preserve">==Time Line==
[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] 1870s [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==1870==
&quot;Until 1870 all of the money women earned belonged to their husbands, and until 1882 their property did too, even after a divorce or separation.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698 of 1203)

In 1870 Parliament debated and defeated the first bill for women's suffrage, but allowed &quot;women who owned property ... to stand for election to school boards.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698–699 of 1203)

&quot;The bulk of Irish farmers did not own their land, and instead leased it from landlords, the majority of whom lived in England. In 1870, only 3 percent of agricultural holdings were occupied by owners.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (742 of 1203)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Arthur Sullivan were at the same dinner party in 1870?

Another dinner party had as guests Charles Dickens, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Tenniel and George Du Maurier.

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1871==
Although Queen Victoria had opened Parliament for the first time in February 1866, when people saw her for the first time in years as her open carriage made its way, she was unpopular because it seemed she was not working. Gladstone was Prime Minister.&lt;blockquote&gt;Between 1871 and 1874, eighty-five Republican Clubs were founded in Britain, protesting, among other things, the &quot;expensiveness and uselessness of the monarchy&quot; and Bertie's &quot;immoral example.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;Baird, Julia. ''Victoria the Queen, an Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire''. Random House, 2016. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria-the-queen/id953835024.&lt;/ref&gt; (617 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&quot;The 1871 Royal Commission on the Contagious Diseases Acts ... declared there was no comparison to be made between prostitutes and their clients: 'With the one sex the offence is committed as a matter of gain, with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (704 of 1203)

=== January ===
Germany is united under King William I of Prussia. Julia Baird says, &quot;At the same time, Italy captured and annexed the Papal States, which had been under the direct rule of the Pope since the 700s and had lost their protector in Napoleon III.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (646 of 1203)

==== 4 January 1871, Wednesday ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;INVITATION BALL.
&lt;p&gt;On Wednesday evening last Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards gave an invitation ball, which was held in the Drapers’ Hall (kindly placed at their disposal by the Drapers’ Company). The following ladies and gentlemen were amongst those who received invitations The Marquis and Marchioness of Hertford; the Earl and Countess of Aylesford; Lady A. N. Finch, Lord Guernsey, and the Hon. Mr. Finch; Lord and Lady Leigh and Miss Leigh; Lord and Lady Henley and Miss Henley, Miss Elwes, Lord and Lady Wrottealey, Lord and Lady Manners; C. N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P.; Captain, Mrs., and Miss Adams; E. Petre, Esq., and Lady Gwendoline Petre; J. Beech, Esq., Mrs. and Miss Beech, and Mr. Beech, jun.; Mr. and Mrs. Turner; Mr. and Mrs. Fetherstone Dilke, Mrs. and the Misses Fetherstone, Mr. Fetherstone, and Mr. Beaumont Fetherstone; Mr. and Mrs. P. A. Muntz; Captain and Mrs. Boultbee, of Knowle; Mr. C. M. Caldecott, Mrs. Caldecott, and the Misses Caldecott; the Rev. A. Fanshawe and Mrs. Fanshawe; Captain and Mrs. Battine; the Rev. S. C. Spencer Smith; the Rev. R. H. Baynes, M.A., vicar of St. Michael’s; the Rev. H. T. Harris, (Christ Church); General and Mr. Richmond Jones; Colonel F. Chaplin, and the Officers of the 4th Dragoon Guards, stationed at Northampton; Captain Thornelow, and the Officers of the Royal Artillery, at Weedon; the officers of the 4th Royal Regiment at Weedon; Mr. and Mrs. E. Wood; Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Wood; the Colonel and officers of the First Warwickshire Militia; Mrs. and Miss Alston, and Mr. Alston, jun., of Elmdon; Mr. and Mrs. F. Paget; Mr. and Mrs. Gulson; Captain Thomson; Captain and Mrs. Raleigh King; Mrs. Phillipson; Lord and Lady Mountgarret; the Honourable Miss Butler; Mr. and Mrs. Courtenay Lord; the Hon. Mrs. Twistleton; Mr. and the Misses Conant; Captain and Mrs. J. Marsland; Major and Mrs. Edlman; Mr. and Mrs. Astley; Mr. T. Lant, Mr. R. Lant and Mr. J. Lant, Mrs. and Miss Lant; Mr. W. T. Cavendish; Mr. and Mrs. A. Rotherham; the Marquis of Ormonde, of the first Life Guards; the Earl of Calludon, of the First Life Guards; Mrs. and the Misses Hobson; Mr P. Hobson, and Mrs. Hobson; Mr. and Mrs. Soames; Mr. and Mrs. Adderley, Sir John Rae Reid; Capt. and Mrs. Townshend, of Caldecote Hall; Lieut.-Colonel Swinfen and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Leeds; Capt. Marsden and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Birmingham; Colonel, Mrs., and Miss Bourne; Mr. and Mrs. Wyley Lord; Captain and Mrs. Thursby; Mr. and Mrs Morrice; Lieut.-Colonel Wirgman; Mr. and Mrs. J. Rotherham; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]]; Mr. and Mrs. Rotherham; Mr and Mrs John Sankey and the Misses Sankey; Mrs. and the Misses Murphy; Mr. Bibby (4th Hussars), Captain Gist (7th Hussars), Mr. Gregg (8th Hussars), Mr. Hamilton (7th Dragoon Guards), Colonel Rattray, Mr and Mrs. R. Boyd, &amp;c, &amp;c.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The string band of the 5th Dragoon Guards, under the direction of Mr. Sidney Jones, performed the following selection of music:— Quadrille, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Marian; Galop, Bonderbryllup; Lancers, Knight of St. Patrick; Valse, Hydropaten; Galop, Flick and Flock; Quadrille, Princess of Trebizonde; Valse, the Belle of the Ball; Galop, the Fox Hunters; Valse, the Dragoon Guards; Lancers, the Gaiety; Valse, the Beautiful Danube; Valse, Wiener Kinder; Quadrille, the Fest; Galop, the Village Rose; Valse, the Geraldine; Lancers, Merry Tunes; Galop, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Various; Galop, Glorioso.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Invitation Ball.&quot; ''Coventry Standard'' 6 January 1871, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000683/18710106/100/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== February ===

==== Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball ====
1871 February 17, Friday, the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; hosted a ball in Birmingham:&lt;blockquote&gt;LEAMINGTON.

B&lt;small&gt;ACHELORS'&lt;/small&gt; B&lt;small&gt;ALL&lt;/small&gt;.&lt;p&gt;— Last night the bachelors of the Tennis Court Club gave a grand ball at the Royal Assembly Rooms, Regent Street. The ball was one of the most brilliant of the season, nearly four hundred of the ''élite'' of the town and neighbourhood having accepted the invitation of the bachelors. The ballroom was specially fitted up for the occasion, and a splendid supper was served in the adjoining rooms, where refreshments were also provided. Coote and Tiney's band was specially engaged for the occasion, and played a selection of the newest and most popular dance music. Amongst the distinguished guests present were — The High Sheriff and Mrs. J. T. Arkwright, Lady Arbuthnott, Lord and Lady Conyers, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], Viscount and Viscountess Mountgarret and the Hon. Miss Butler, Sir John and Lady Blois, Sir Thomas Biddulph, the Hon. Miss Somerville, Sir William and Lady Fairfax, the Hon. Charles L. Butler, Rev. Sir John Rae, General and Mrs. Richmond Jones, Major Eldman, Major and Mrs. James Ashton, Major and Mrs. Boothby, Colonel Ruttie, Colonel Duberly, Colonel and Mrs. Machen, Colonel Rattray, Capt. and Mrs. Kennedy, Capt. W. J. Hall, Capt. Hodge, Capt. and Mrs. Morgan, Capt. and Mrs. Pearse, Capt. Roberts, Capt. Story, Mr. and Mrs. Featherstone Dilke (Maxstoke Castle) and Miss Dixie, Mr. C. M., Miss, and Miss M. A. Caldecott (Holbrooke Grange), Mr. and Mrs. J. Dugdale (Wroxhall Abbey), Mr. E. Greaves, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. C. L. Adderley (Hams Hall), and Capt. and Mrs. Hatherall. Several of the officers from the dragoons and artillery at Coventry and Birmingham were also present. The bachelors who gave the ball were twenty-eight in number.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Leamington.&quot; &quot;District News.&quot; ''Birmingham Morning News'' 18 February 1871, Saturday: 7 [of 8, print and digital], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005826/18710218/114/0007. Print and digital title are the same.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== March ===

=== April ===

==== 18 April 1871 ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Karl Marx “was commissioned by the General Council of the International to write a pamphlet about the Paris [377–378] Commune.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Smee, Sebastian. ''Paris in Ruins: Love, War, and the Birth of Impressionism''. W. W. Norton, 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|377–378 of 667}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===May===

==== 9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;THE QUEEN'S DRAWING-ROOM.

The Queen held a Drawing-room at Buckingham Palace on Tuesday afternoon. The Priuce of Wales, Prince Arthur, Prince Leopold, and Princess Beatrice were present. Her Majesty, accompanied by the Prince of Wales and the other members of the royal family, entered the Throne Room shortly after three o'clock. The Queen wore a black moire antique dress with a train, long white tulle veil with a coronet of diamonds. Her Majesty also wore a necklace of diamonds and amethysts, the Riband and Star of the Order of the Garter, the Orders of Victoria and Albert and Louise of Prussia, and the Saxe Coburg and Gotha Family Order. Princess Beatrice wore a dress of white tulle over a rich white silk petticoat looped up with lilies of the valley and apple blossom; ornaments — pearls and diamonds.

The presentations to Her Majesty were about 280 in number, and included the following:— Mrs Atlay, by the Countess Grey; Miss Backhouse, by her mother, Mrs Backhouse; Miss Charlesworth, by her aunt, Frances Lady Hawke; Miss Backhouse Fox, by her aunt, Mrs Backhouse; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], by her mother, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|the Hon. Mrs Howard]]; the Hon. Gwendoline Fitz-Alan Howard, by the Duchess of Sutherland; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Alice Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Louisa Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; Miss Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Miss Agnes Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Sir Henry Ingilby, Bart., by Earl Russell; Mrs Frank Lascelles, by Lady Edward Cavendish; Mrs Gerald Liddell, marriage, by the Countess of Normanby.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Official News.&quot; ''Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer'' 11 May 1871, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000686/18710511/074/0003. Same print title and p.n.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''24 May 1871, Wednesday''': Derby Day. Baron Rothschild's Favonius won. The Prince of Wales attended.

June
July
August
September
===October===
'''October 1871'''&lt;blockquote&gt;At Londesborough Lodge near Scarborough, where Lady Londesborough gave a royal house party in October 1871, not only [ 41/42 ] were the bathrooms few but the drains seeped into the drinking water. Several guests, including the Prince [of Wales] and his groom and Lord Chesterfield, contracted typhoid fever. When Chesterfield and the groom died, the doctors abandoned hope for the Prince.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|41–42}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Prince of Wales recovered on 14 December 1871.

November
December

==1872==
January
February
March
April
===May===
'''29 May 1872, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
===August===
'''August 1872''': The &quot;dance on the cruiser Ariadne&quot; probably occurred in August 1872:&lt;blockquote&gt;When his [the Prince of Wales'] brother, the Duke of Edinburgh, married the attractive Grand Duchess Marie, daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, her family made a fuss because she was not granted precedence above the Princess of Wales. Albert Edward soothed ruffled feelings by inviting the Tsarevitch and his wife Marie Feodorovna (who was Alexandra's sister) to stay for two months and be entertained at Cowes. ...&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

... At the dance on the cruiser Ariadne which the Prince gave in honour of the Tsarevitch and his Grand Duchess,&quot; Lord Randolph Churchill met the 19-year-old &quot;Miss Jennie Jerome of New York.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42–43}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

September
October
November
December

==1873==

=== January ===

==== 14 January 1873, Tuesday ====
Ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge&lt;blockquote&gt;The Marquis of Hartington gave a ball last evening at the Chief Secretary's Lodge, to their Excellencies the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess Spencer, who were accompanied by the Dowager Countess Spencer, the Ladies Sarah and Victoria Spencer and the Hon Robert Spencer, Lord and Lady Charles Bruce, and Major Stirling, A D C.

The following had the honour of receiving invitations to meet their Excellencies — The Duke of Leinster, the Marquis and Marchioness of Kildare, the Ladies Fitzgerald, the Marquis and Marchioness of Drogheda, the Earl and Countess of Listowel, Lord and Lady Edward Cavendish, the Earl of Charleville, the Lord Chancellor and Lady O'Hagan, Viscount, Viscountess, the Hon Misses, and Hon Henry Monck; the Archbishop of Dublin, the Hon Mrs and the Misses Trench; Lord Talbot de Malahide and the Hon Francis Talbot, Lord and Lady Sandhurst and Captain Bang, A D C; Lady Cloncurry, Hon Emily and Hon Mary Lawless, Viscount, Viscountess, Hon Georgiana, and Hon Beatrice [de?] Vesci; Lord and Lady Kilmaize [?], Hon Gertrude [?] Browze, Lord and Lady Ventry, Hon Norah Westenra, Lord and Lady Athlumney, Lord, Lady, and Hon D Plunket, M P; Viscountess and the Hon. Miss Netterivlle, Capt the Hon Mrs Vesey, Captain and Lady Julia Follett, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guiness and the Ladies White, the Hon H W L Corry, Lord and Lady and the Hon Miss O'Neill, Viscount Hawarden, the Hon Florence Maude, the Hon. Clementina Maude, the Hon Jenico and Mrs Preston, the Hon Henry Leeson, Colonel and the Hon Mrs Caulfield, Mr and the Hon Mrs Robert Hobart, Captain, Lady Mary and Miss Lindsay; Mr Ion [?] Trent Hamilton, M P; Mr Bagwell; the Hon Mrs and the Misses Bagwell, and Mr Bagwell; Colonel the Hon L and Mrs Curzon Smyth, Mr, Lady Margaret, and the Misses Stronge [?]; Mr and the Hon Mrs O'Hagan, Hon Charles Bourke, Hon Mrs Alfred and Lady Kathleen Bury, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Hon Mrs, Lady Alice, and Lady Louisa Howard]]; Captain, the Hon Mrs, and Miss Donaldson; Dr and Miss Bans, Mrs Grattan Bellew, Sir Edward and Miss Borough, Mr Arthur Cane, Sir Dominic, Lady, and Miss Corrigan; Mr Corrigan, Mr and Mrs Gustavus Cornwall and Miss Cornwall, Mr D'Arcy, M P, and Mrs D'Arcy; Mr Baron Dowse [?], and Mrs and Miss Dowse, Mr Baron Deasy and Mrs Deasy, Dr, Mrs, and Miss de Ricci; Dr and Miss Hatchell, Sir George and Lady Hudson, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Huband; Mr Arthur Huband, Miss Caroline Huband, Mr and Mrs Arthur Hume, Dr Hughes, Mr Henry Jephsen and Miss Jephsen, Mr Kearney and the Misses Kearney, Captain Kearney, A D C; Captain Lascelles, A D C; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Kirwan; Mr Justice Lawson and Mrs Lawson, Mr and Mrs W Le Fanu, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Lentaigne; Sir George L'Estrange and the Misses L'Estrange, the Lord and Lady Mayoress, and the Misses Mackey; the Lord Chief Justice Monahan, Mrs and Miss Monahan; Sir J, Lady, and Miss Power; Mr John Talbot Power, M P; Col, Mrs, and Miss Radcliffe; the Master of the Rolls, Mrs and Miss Sullivan; Capt and Mrs Moorsom, A D C; General Sir Thomas and Lady Steel, Captain and Mrs Brownrigg, A D C, Mr Granville Milner, Capt, Mrs and Miss Talbot, Colonel, Mrs, and the Misses White; Sir John Stewart Wood, Lady and the Misses Wood; Mrs and the Misses Williams, Mr Justice Fitzgerald and the Hon Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr Justice Barry and Mrs Barry, Mr Sergeant Sherlock, M P, Mrs and Miss Sherlock; Mr Sheriock, the Right Hon W H Conan, M P, and Mrs Cogan; Mr Justice Keogh and Mrs Keogh, Mr Keogh, Capt Keogh, R N; Lord Chief Baron and Miss Pigott, Dr, Mrs, and Miss Nugent; General Wardlaw, Colonel M'Kerlie, Mr Sergeant and Mrs and Miss Armstrong; Col, Mrs, and the Misses Maude; Col, Mrs, and Miss Hillier; Mr Heron, M P; Mr and Mrs Watters, Col and Mrs Wynyard, Dr and the Misses Kennedy, the Attorney General and Mrs Palles, the Solicitor General and Mrs Law, Col, Mrs, and Miss Lake; Lady and the Misses Butler, Mr Butler, Col and Mrs Colthurst Vesey, and Miss Walton; Mr, Lady Fanny and Miss Lambert; Mr E C Guinness, Mr and Mrs MMorer O'Ferrall, Mr and Mrs Leonard Morrogh, Sir Bernard and Lady Burke, Mr G and Mrs G Brooke and Miss Brooke, Mr and Mrs Roe, Mr Vance, M P, Mrs and Miss Vance; Col and Mrs Primrose, Lieut Col Ferdall [?], Col and Mrs Goodlake and Miss Alexander, Mr Alison, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Barton, Mr Justice Flanagan, Mrs and Miss Flanagan, Mer J. N. Lentaigne, Mr Johnson, Captain Harrison, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Maturin; Mr Justice Morris and Mrs Morris, Mr and Mrs Mazlere [?] Brady, Major, Mrs, and Miss Wilkinson; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Donnelly; Mr and Mrs Cruise, Mrs Power, Mr Braon Fitzgerald and Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Henry Yates Thompson, Mr Courtenay Boyle, Colonel Forster, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Taylor, Mr Bland and Mrs Godfrey Bland, Mr and Miss Dillon, Mr and Mrs Wallace, Mr M'Kenna, Mr Cullinane, Mr Armstrong, Mr C E [?] Dobbin, Mr J A Blake, Major and Mrs Papillon, Capt and Mrs Keane, Mr E Pretty, Mr, Mrs John L O Ferrall and Miss O'Ferrall, Mrs and Miss Walsh, Mr and Mrs R Howard Brook, Mrs and Miss Brook, Mrs and the Misses Blake, Mr and Mrs J Warren, Sir John Gray, M P, Lady, and Miss Gray; Colonel and Mrs Frank Chaplin, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Hemphill; Sir R, Lady and Miss Kane, Mrs and Miss Courtenay, Mr Arthur Courtenay, Mr G Courtenay, Mr E Hardtop, A D C; Mr Bellew, Dr and Mrs Nedley, Dr and Mrs Newell, Mr and Mrs Freeman, Mr and Mrs Geale, Captain Hutten, A D C; Mr and Mrs Adair and Miss Wadsworth, Captain and Mrs J M Benthall, Sir R, Lady, and the Misses M'Causlend [?]; Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Newell Barron; Mr Hawkins, Colonel Goodlake and the Officers of the Coldstream Guards; Captain Spain, R N, and the Officers (4) of her Majesty's ship Vanguard; Colonel Radcliffe and Officers (4), Royal Artillery; Colonel Spade and Officers (4) 1st King's Dragoon Guards; Colonel Ainslie and Officers (4), 1st Royal Dragoons; Colonel Thompson and Officers (4), 14th Hussars; Colonel Ross and Officers (4), 4th Battalion Rifle Brigade; Colonel Hawkins and Officers (4), Royal Engineers; Colonel Gloster and Officers (4), 97th Regiment; Lieutenant-Colonel Maunsell and Officers (4), 13th Regiment.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Telegraph'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 7a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002093/18730114/044/0004. Print title ''The Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;February
March
April
===May===
'''28 May 1873, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1874==
January
February
March
April
===May===

==== 1874 May, Early ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;As monarchists’ hopes flared, the Catholic Church, too, enjoyed a conspicuous revival. The National Assembly approved a design for a new basilica for Paris. Intended as an act of collective atonement, Sacré-Coeur was to perch atop Montmartre, immediately above where Nadar’s balloons had been launched and where the radicals’ insurrection had broken out. Excavations began in early May 1874 ....

But the focus of the penance the basilica was intended to embody gradually shifted from the moral decline of French society in general to the despicable excesses of the Commune. In 1872 Archbishop Darboy’s successor claimed to have had a vision as he climbed the Butte Montmartre. The clouds dispersed, and he realized that it was there, “where the martyrs” were (he meant the murdered generals Lecomte and Clément-Thomas), that a new church should be built. And when the Assembly voted to proceed with the construction, legislators specified that its purpose was to “expiate the crimes of the Commune.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; (464 of 667)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===June===
'''3 June 1874, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''8 December 1874, Tuesday''': &quot;CHATSWORTH, Tuesday, December 8th, 1874. — We are come to the last slide of the Chatsworth magic lantern: the Duke of Cambridge and his equerry, a funny little man called Tyrwhitt, of no particular age, in a grey wig; Lord Carlingford and Ly. Waldegrave, the Spencers, Mr. Leveson, Cavendish.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ladylucycavendish.blogspot.com/2010/12/08dec1874-chatsworth-magic-lantern.html|title=Lady Lucy Cavendish: 08Dec1874, The Chatsworth Magic Lantern|last=H|first=Denise|date=2010-12-04|website=Lady Lucy Cavendish|access-date=2025-06-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==1875==
Disraeli's progressive legislation for labor rights:&lt;blockquote&gt;In 1875, he passed a series of enlightened acts protecting labor rights, arguing they were as important as property rights. Two of the laws ensured that workers would have the same recourse as employers when contracts were breached, and made peaceful picketing legal, protecting unions from charges of conspiracy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (578 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;After women who owned property were allowed by Parliament to stand for local school-board elections in 1870, &quot;Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, the first woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain — in 1865 — stood and was elected to her local board five years later.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (199 of 1203)

The relationship between Swinburne and Lord Houghton:&lt;blockquote&gt;...not all Lord Houghton's children appreciated the catholicity of &quot;Papa's&quot; taste in friends: &quot;Swinburne (in a very excited state) came in in the evening,&quot; wrote Florence Milnes to her brother in 1875: &quot;He is madder than ever, to my astonishment he flopped down on one knee in front of me, &amp; announced that my hair had grown darker. This was rather embarrassing, and he is also so deaf now, which does not make it easier to talk to him.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Pope-Hennessy Lord Crewe.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|5}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''26 May 1875, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales attended, as did a number of others of the royal family, including Princess Louise and Lorne.

June
July
===August===
'''August through October 1875''' Richard Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and son Robert Milnes toured the U.S. and Canada:&lt;blockquote&gt;They set off in the steamer s.s Sarmatian from Liverpool in August 1875, stopping at Ireland to pick up the usual load of emigrants bound for the U.S.A. The most interesting among the passengers was 'Mr. Butler, author of Erewhon, who is very amusing and clever though infidel,' but, although he played whist with Samuel Butler, the young man was far more interested in the Eustace Smiths (parents of his friend W. H. Smith), and in a Canadian family named Macpherson, the youngest of whose two daughters, the dark-eyed Isobel, caught his fancy: he saw them afterwards in Toronto, and when they parted she gave him two larger than carte-de-visite photographs of herself, he gave her a smaller one of himself together with the inevitable volume of his father's verse.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|10}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;September
October
November
December

==1876==
Disraeli pushed through the Cruelty to Animals Act in order to please Queen Victoria. This act &quot;forced researchers to demonstrate that any experiments with animals involving pain were absolutely necessary, and ensured they would be anesthetized if so.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (679 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''11 May 1876''': In the midst of the Aylesford scandal, the Prince of Wales returned from a journey to Egypt and India, etc.:&lt;blockquote&gt;However harassed and exhausted, the Prince and Princess of Wales would put up a good show. Within an hour of their arrival home they set forth to attend a gala performance at Covent Garden Opera House. It was a brave decision to face the public and allow an immediate opportunity for demonstration. The Prince and Princess were rewarded when the audience rose to its feet to give them a standing ovation before the start of every act, as well as at the end, of Verdi's Ballo in Maschera.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|63}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''27 May 1877''': Lily Langtry:&lt;blockquote&gt;Her big moment on May 27, 1877, when Sir Allen Young, the arctic explorer, invited her to late supper in his house, where it had been arranged that the Prince of Wales should meet her after the opera. The result was all that could have been expected. Mrs. Langtry became the Prince's first openly recognised mistress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|69}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''31 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales did not attend, as he was ill.

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1877==
&quot;In 1877, unemployment was 4.7 percent; by 1879, it had risen to 11.4 percent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (690 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''30 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''15 December 1877'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On Dec. 15, 1877, the Queen honoured Lord Beaconsfield, the Premier, with a visit at Hughenden Manor. Her Majesty, accompanied by Princess Beatrice and attended by General Ponsonby and the Marchioness of Ely, left Windsor at 12.40 and proceeded by special train to High Wycombe, which was reached at 1.15. The Premier received the Queen at the station. A lofty triumphal arch spanned the entrance to the station-yard, and beneath this the royal party drove into the gaily decorated little town. The reception along the route was of the heartiest, and the drive of two miles to Hughenden was one long triumph. Lord Beaconsfield, who had preceded the party, welcomed the Queen at his own door. Lunch was served, and her Majesty remained about two hours. Before leaving she planted a memorial tree.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Queen's Glorious Reign.&quot; ''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, May 27, 1899; pp. 757–765?; Issue 3136. Queen's Glorious Reign [Supplement]: 762?&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==1878==
January
February
March
April
May
===June===
'''5 June 1878, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

July
August
September
October
===November===
'''8 November 1878''': from the journal of George, Duke of Cambridge:&lt;blockquote&gt;''November'' 8. — Gave farewell diner to the Lornes; Louise and Lorne, Augusta, Mary and Francis, Arthur, Leopold, Gleichens, J. Macdonald and self, and played at Nap afterwards. It was a good and nice little dinner.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sheppard, Edgar, Ed. ''George, Duke of Cambridge: A Memoir of His Private Life, Based on the Journals and Correspondence of His Royal Highness''. Vol. 2, 1871–1904. New York: Longmans, Green, 1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=dFoMAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;December

==1879==
===January===
'''12 January 1879'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On 12 January 1879 Robert Milnes came of age, an event celebrated at Fryston by a tenants' ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''28 January 1879''': Brett &quot;Harte kicked off his tour at the Crystal Palace in Sydenham on January 28, 1879.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nissen, Alex. ''Brett Harte: Prince and Pauper''. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|174}}

February
March

===April===
'''Early April 1879''' or so, probably, Bret Harte got &quot;an invitation to dine the same evening with Arthur Sullivan and the Prince of Wales&quot; as a dinner in Birmingham where Harte met T. Edgar Pemberton.&lt;ref&gt;Scharnhorst, Gary. ''Bret Harte: Opening the American Literary West''. Norman, OK: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|152}}
===May===
'''28 May 1879, Wednesday''': Derby Day; the Prince and Princess of Wales attended.

===June===
'''June 1879''', Robert Milnes became engaged to &quot;Sibyl Marcia, a daughter of a North-country baronet, Sir Frederick Graham of Netherby.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}} Parties must have followed.

July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''28 December 1879''': The Tay Bridge Disaster: The Tay Bridge collapsed with a train on it. The weather was very bad, with gale-force winds and rain.

The ''Times'' reported that the average high temperature for the week ending December 31, 1879, was 53° F. and the low was 20° F.

In his column &quot;What the World Says&quot; in the 21 January 1880 World, Edmund Yates writes the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;How am I to describe better the magnificence of the Earl and Countess of Rosslyn’s ball at Euston Lodge last month, than by calling attention to the fact that M. Carlo, the eminent Knightsbridge coiffeur, arrived early in the day to crimp and powder the lacqueys? My informant adds, however, that the curled darlings were rather the worse for the festivities towards night. Was it not enough to turn their heads in every sense of the word?&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Edmund Yates, &quot;What the World Says,&quot; ''The World: A Journal for Men and Women''.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|21 Jan. 1880, p. 8, col. b.}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''31 December 1879''': Edmund Yates, editor of The World: A Journal for Men and Women, in his column &quot;What the World Says,&quot; describes a private viewing at the Grosvenor Gallery:&lt;blockquote&gt;The private view at the Grosvenor on the last day of the year gave people something to do on a desperately wet afternoon. The artistic dresses were perhaps in greater force than ever; indeed the faces and the hair and the attitudes pursued me to my bed, and gave me many a nightmare. I suppose the plain woman of all time has had the ambition to be looked at: centuries of failure have at last been crowned with a real success. Besides the Cimabue Browns there was an interesting menagerie of real lions, artistic, literary, and clerical. The artists were numerous, and their host and hostess seemed to enjoy themselves very thoroughly.

Frequenters of the picture private views have a new sensation this winter. Last season they mobbed beauty: now hideously-attired unkempt dowdiness provokes the stare. The prize for the new style seems generally awarded to a rhubarb coloured flannel Ulster and a cart-wheel beaver hat, which pervaded both the private views last week. [2 private views last week, one at the Grosvenor]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7 Jan. 1880, p. 9}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The official premiere of ''The Pirates of Penzance'' occurred in New York City on 31 December 1879 at the Fifth Avenue Theatre, to establish international copyright. Gilbert and Sullivan were there with the cast. The performance was a social event: attending were Mrs. Vanderbilt and Mrs. Astor.

==Works Cited==
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      <contributor>
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        <id>1331941</id>
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      <comment>/* 1873 */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="31251" sha1="9zalqjnqvlybry850uoa4ado2xzdckt" xml:space="preserve">==Time Line==
[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] 1870s [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==1870==
&quot;Until 1870 all of the money women earned belonged to their husbands, and until 1882 their property did too, even after a divorce or separation.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698 of 1203)

In 1870 Parliament debated and defeated the first bill for women's suffrage, but allowed &quot;women who owned property ... to stand for election to school boards.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698–699 of 1203)

&quot;The bulk of Irish farmers did not own their land, and instead leased it from landlords, the majority of whom lived in England. In 1870, only 3 percent of agricultural holdings were occupied by owners.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (742 of 1203)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Arthur Sullivan were at the same dinner party in 1870?

Another dinner party had as guests Charles Dickens, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Tenniel and George Du Maurier.

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1871==
Although Queen Victoria had opened Parliament for the first time in February 1866, when people saw her for the first time in years as her open carriage made its way, she was unpopular because it seemed she was not working. Gladstone was Prime Minister.&lt;blockquote&gt;Between 1871 and 1874, eighty-five Republican Clubs were founded in Britain, protesting, among other things, the &quot;expensiveness and uselessness of the monarchy&quot; and Bertie's &quot;immoral example.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;Baird, Julia. ''Victoria the Queen, an Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire''. Random House, 2016. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria-the-queen/id953835024.&lt;/ref&gt; (617 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&quot;The 1871 Royal Commission on the Contagious Diseases Acts ... declared there was no comparison to be made between prostitutes and their clients: 'With the one sex the offence is committed as a matter of gain, with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (704 of 1203)

=== January ===
Germany is united under King William I of Prussia. Julia Baird says, &quot;At the same time, Italy captured and annexed the Papal States, which had been under the direct rule of the Pope since the 700s and had lost their protector in Napoleon III.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (646 of 1203)

==== 4 January 1871, Wednesday ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;INVITATION BALL.
&lt;p&gt;On Wednesday evening last Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards gave an invitation ball, which was held in the Drapers’ Hall (kindly placed at their disposal by the Drapers’ Company). The following ladies and gentlemen were amongst those who received invitations The Marquis and Marchioness of Hertford; the Earl and Countess of Aylesford; Lady A. N. Finch, Lord Guernsey, and the Hon. Mr. Finch; Lord and Lady Leigh and Miss Leigh; Lord and Lady Henley and Miss Henley, Miss Elwes, Lord and Lady Wrottealey, Lord and Lady Manners; C. N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P.; Captain, Mrs., and Miss Adams; E. Petre, Esq., and Lady Gwendoline Petre; J. Beech, Esq., Mrs. and Miss Beech, and Mr. Beech, jun.; Mr. and Mrs. Turner; Mr. and Mrs. Fetherstone Dilke, Mrs. and the Misses Fetherstone, Mr. Fetherstone, and Mr. Beaumont Fetherstone; Mr. and Mrs. P. A. Muntz; Captain and Mrs. Boultbee, of Knowle; Mr. C. M. Caldecott, Mrs. Caldecott, and the Misses Caldecott; the Rev. A. Fanshawe and Mrs. Fanshawe; Captain and Mrs. Battine; the Rev. S. C. Spencer Smith; the Rev. R. H. Baynes, M.A., vicar of St. Michael’s; the Rev. H. T. Harris, (Christ Church); General and Mr. Richmond Jones; Colonel F. Chaplin, and the Officers of the 4th Dragoon Guards, stationed at Northampton; Captain Thornelow, and the Officers of the Royal Artillery, at Weedon; the officers of the 4th Royal Regiment at Weedon; Mr. and Mrs. E. Wood; Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Wood; the Colonel and officers of the First Warwickshire Militia; Mrs. and Miss Alston, and Mr. Alston, jun., of Elmdon; Mr. and Mrs. F. Paget; Mr. and Mrs. Gulson; Captain Thomson; Captain and Mrs. Raleigh King; Mrs. Phillipson; Lord and Lady Mountgarret; the Honourable Miss Butler; Mr. and Mrs. Courtenay Lord; the Hon. Mrs. Twistleton; Mr. and the Misses Conant; Captain and Mrs. J. Marsland; Major and Mrs. Edlman; Mr. and Mrs. Astley; Mr. T. Lant, Mr. R. Lant and Mr. J. Lant, Mrs. and Miss Lant; Mr. W. T. Cavendish; Mr. and Mrs. A. Rotherham; the Marquis of Ormonde, of the first Life Guards; the Earl of Calludon, of the First Life Guards; Mrs. and the Misses Hobson; Mr P. Hobson, and Mrs. Hobson; Mr. and Mrs. Soames; Mr. and Mrs. Adderley, Sir John Rae Reid; Capt. and Mrs. Townshend, of Caldecote Hall; Lieut.-Colonel Swinfen and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Leeds; Capt. Marsden and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Birmingham; Colonel, Mrs., and Miss Bourne; Mr. and Mrs. Wyley Lord; Captain and Mrs. Thursby; Mr. and Mrs Morrice; Lieut.-Colonel Wirgman; Mr. and Mrs. J. Rotherham; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]]; Mr. and Mrs. Rotherham; Mr and Mrs John Sankey and the Misses Sankey; Mrs. and the Misses Murphy; Mr. Bibby (4th Hussars), Captain Gist (7th Hussars), Mr. Gregg (8th Hussars), Mr. Hamilton (7th Dragoon Guards), Colonel Rattray, Mr and Mrs. R. Boyd, &amp;c, &amp;c.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The string band of the 5th Dragoon Guards, under the direction of Mr. Sidney Jones, performed the following selection of music:— Quadrille, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Marian; Galop, Bonderbryllup; Lancers, Knight of St. Patrick; Valse, Hydropaten; Galop, Flick and Flock; Quadrille, Princess of Trebizonde; Valse, the Belle of the Ball; Galop, the Fox Hunters; Valse, the Dragoon Guards; Lancers, the Gaiety; Valse, the Beautiful Danube; Valse, Wiener Kinder; Quadrille, the Fest; Galop, the Village Rose; Valse, the Geraldine; Lancers, Merry Tunes; Galop, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Various; Galop, Glorioso.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Invitation Ball.&quot; ''Coventry Standard'' 6 January 1871, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000683/18710106/100/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== February ===

==== Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball ====
1871 February 17, Friday, the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; hosted a ball in Birmingham:&lt;blockquote&gt;LEAMINGTON.

B&lt;small&gt;ACHELORS'&lt;/small&gt; B&lt;small&gt;ALL&lt;/small&gt;.&lt;p&gt;— Last night the bachelors of the Tennis Court Club gave a grand ball at the Royal Assembly Rooms, Regent Street. The ball was one of the most brilliant of the season, nearly four hundred of the ''élite'' of the town and neighbourhood having accepted the invitation of the bachelors. The ballroom was specially fitted up for the occasion, and a splendid supper was served in the adjoining rooms, where refreshments were also provided. Coote and Tiney's band was specially engaged for the occasion, and played a selection of the newest and most popular dance music. Amongst the distinguished guests present were — The High Sheriff and Mrs. J. T. Arkwright, Lady Arbuthnott, Lord and Lady Conyers, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], Viscount and Viscountess Mountgarret and the Hon. Miss Butler, Sir John and Lady Blois, Sir Thomas Biddulph, the Hon. Miss Somerville, Sir William and Lady Fairfax, the Hon. Charles L. Butler, Rev. Sir John Rae, General and Mrs. Richmond Jones, Major Eldman, Major and Mrs. James Ashton, Major and Mrs. Boothby, Colonel Ruttie, Colonel Duberly, Colonel and Mrs. Machen, Colonel Rattray, Capt. and Mrs. Kennedy, Capt. W. J. Hall, Capt. Hodge, Capt. and Mrs. Morgan, Capt. and Mrs. Pearse, Capt. Roberts, Capt. Story, Mr. and Mrs. Featherstone Dilke (Maxstoke Castle) and Miss Dixie, Mr. C. M., Miss, and Miss M. A. Caldecott (Holbrooke Grange), Mr. and Mrs. J. Dugdale (Wroxhall Abbey), Mr. E. Greaves, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. C. L. Adderley (Hams Hall), and Capt. and Mrs. Hatherall. Several of the officers from the dragoons and artillery at Coventry and Birmingham were also present. The bachelors who gave the ball were twenty-eight in number.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Leamington.&quot; &quot;District News.&quot; ''Birmingham Morning News'' 18 February 1871, Saturday: 7 [of 8, print and digital], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005826/18710218/114/0007. Print and digital title are the same.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== March ===

=== April ===

==== 18 April 1871 ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Karl Marx “was commissioned by the General Council of the International to write a pamphlet about the Paris [377–378] Commune.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Smee, Sebastian. ''Paris in Ruins: Love, War, and the Birth of Impressionism''. W. W. Norton, 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|377–378 of 667}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===May===

==== 9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;THE QUEEN'S DRAWING-ROOM.

The Queen held a Drawing-room at Buckingham Palace on Tuesday afternoon. The Priuce of Wales, Prince Arthur, Prince Leopold, and Princess Beatrice were present. Her Majesty, accompanied by the Prince of Wales and the other members of the royal family, entered the Throne Room shortly after three o'clock. The Queen wore a black moire antique dress with a train, long white tulle veil with a coronet of diamonds. Her Majesty also wore a necklace of diamonds and amethysts, the Riband and Star of the Order of the Garter, the Orders of Victoria and Albert and Louise of Prussia, and the Saxe Coburg and Gotha Family Order. Princess Beatrice wore a dress of white tulle over a rich white silk petticoat looped up with lilies of the valley and apple blossom; ornaments — pearls and diamonds.

The presentations to Her Majesty were about 280 in number, and included the following:— Mrs Atlay, by the Countess Grey; Miss Backhouse, by her mother, Mrs Backhouse; Miss Charlesworth, by her aunt, Frances Lady Hawke; Miss Backhouse Fox, by her aunt, Mrs Backhouse; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], by her mother, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|the Hon. Mrs Howard]]; the Hon. Gwendoline Fitz-Alan Howard, by the Duchess of Sutherland; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Alice Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Louisa Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; Miss Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Miss Agnes Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Sir Henry Ingilby, Bart., by Earl Russell; Mrs Frank Lascelles, by Lady Edward Cavendish; Mrs Gerald Liddell, marriage, by the Countess of Normanby.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Official News.&quot; ''Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer'' 11 May 1871, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000686/18710511/074/0003. Same print title and p.n.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''24 May 1871, Wednesday''': Derby Day. Baron Rothschild's Favonius won. The Prince of Wales attended.

June
July
August
September
===October===
'''October 1871'''&lt;blockquote&gt;At Londesborough Lodge near Scarborough, where Lady Londesborough gave a royal house party in October 1871, not only [ 41/42 ] were the bathrooms few but the drains seeped into the drinking water. Several guests, including the Prince [of Wales] and his groom and Lord Chesterfield, contracted typhoid fever. When Chesterfield and the groom died, the doctors abandoned hope for the Prince.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|41–42}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Prince of Wales recovered on 14 December 1871.

November
December

==1872==
January
February
March
April
===May===
'''29 May 1872, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
===August===
'''August 1872''': The &quot;dance on the cruiser Ariadne&quot; probably occurred in August 1872:&lt;blockquote&gt;When his [the Prince of Wales'] brother, the Duke of Edinburgh, married the attractive Grand Duchess Marie, daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, her family made a fuss because she was not granted precedence above the Princess of Wales. Albert Edward soothed ruffled feelings by inviting the Tsarevitch and his wife Marie Feodorovna (who was Alexandra's sister) to stay for two months and be entertained at Cowes. ...&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

... At the dance on the cruiser Ariadne which the Prince gave in honour of the Tsarevitch and his Grand Duchess,&quot; Lord Randolph Churchill met the 19-year-old &quot;Miss Jennie Jerome of New York.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42–43}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

September
October
November
December

==1873==

=== January ===

==== 13 January 1873, Monday ====

==== Ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge ====
On Tuesday, 14 January 1873, the Dublin Evening Telegraph reported that the Marquis of Hartington's ball had taken place the evening before.&lt;blockquote&gt;The Marquis of Hartington gave a ball last evening at the Chief Secretary's Lodge, to their Excellencies the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess Spencer, who were accompanied by the Dowager Countess Spencer, the Ladies Sarah and Victoria Spencer and the Hon Robert Spencer, Lord and Lady Charles Bruce, and Major Stirling, A D C.

The following had the honour of receiving invitations to meet their Excellencies — The Duke of Leinster, the Marquis and Marchioness of Kildare, the Ladies Fitzgerald, the Marquis and Marchioness of Drogheda, the Earl and Countess of Listowel, Lord and Lady Edward Cavendish, the Earl of Charleville, the Lord Chancellor and Lady O'Hagan, Viscount, Viscountess, the Hon Misses, and Hon Henry Monck; the Archbishop of Dublin, the Hon Mrs and the Misses Trench; Lord Talbot de Malahide and the Hon Francis Talbot, Lord and Lady Sandhurst and Captain Bang, A D C; Lady Cloncurry, Hon Emily and Hon Mary Lawless, Viscount, Viscountess, Hon Georgiana, and Hon Beatrice [de?] Vesci; Lord and Lady Kilmaize [?], Hon Gertrude [?] Browze, Lord and Lady Ventry, Hon Norah Westenra, Lord and Lady Athlumney, Lord, Lady, and Hon D Plunket, M P; Viscountess and the Hon. Miss Netterivlle, Capt the Hon Mrs Vesey, Captain and Lady Julia Follett, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guiness and the Ladies White, the Hon H W L Corry, Lord and Lady and the Hon Miss O'Neill, Viscount Hawarden, the Hon Florence Maude, the Hon. Clementina Maude, the Hon Jenico and Mrs Preston, the Hon Henry Leeson, Colonel and the Hon Mrs Caulfield, Mr and the Hon Mrs Robert Hobart, Captain, Lady Mary and Miss Lindsay; Mr Ion [?] Trent Hamilton, M P; Mr Bagwell; the Hon Mrs and the Misses Bagwell, and Mr Bagwell; Colonel the Hon L and Mrs Curzon Smyth, Mr, Lady Margaret, and the Misses Stronge [?]; Mr and the Hon Mrs O'Hagan, Hon Charles Bourke, Hon Mrs Alfred and Lady Kathleen Bury, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Hon Mrs, Lady Alice, and Lady Louisa Howard]]; Captain, the Hon Mrs, and Miss Donaldson; Dr and Miss Bans, Mrs Grattan Bellew, Sir Edward and Miss Borough, Mr Arthur Cane, Sir Dominic, Lady, and Miss Corrigan; Mr Corrigan, Mr and Mrs Gustavus Cornwall and Miss Cornwall, Mr D'Arcy, M P, and Mrs D'Arcy; Mr Baron Dowse [?], and Mrs and Miss Dowse, Mr Baron Deasy and Mrs Deasy, Dr, Mrs, and Miss de Ricci; Dr and Miss Hatchell, Sir George and Lady Hudson, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Huband; Mr Arthur Huband, Miss Caroline Huband, Mr and Mrs Arthur Hume, Dr Hughes, Mr Henry Jephsen and Miss Jephsen, Mr Kearney and the Misses Kearney, Captain Kearney, A D C; Captain Lascelles, A D C; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Kirwan; Mr Justice Lawson and Mrs Lawson, Mr and Mrs W Le Fanu, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Lentaigne; Sir George L'Estrange and the Misses L'Estrange, the Lord and Lady Mayoress, and the Misses Mackey; the Lord Chief Justice Monahan, Mrs and Miss Monahan; Sir J, Lady, and Miss Power; Mr John Talbot Power, M P; Col, Mrs, and Miss Radcliffe; the Master of the Rolls, Mrs and Miss Sullivan; Capt and Mrs Moorsom, A D C; General Sir Thomas and Lady Steel, Captain and Mrs Brownrigg, A D C, Mr Granville Milner, Capt, Mrs and Miss Talbot, Colonel, Mrs, and the Misses White; Sir John Stewart Wood, Lady and the Misses Wood; Mrs and the Misses Williams, Mr Justice Fitzgerald and the Hon Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr Justice Barry and Mrs Barry, Mr Sergeant Sherlock, M P, Mrs and Miss Sherlock; Mr Sheriock, the Right Hon W H Conan, M P, and Mrs Cogan; Mr Justice Keogh and Mrs Keogh, Mr Keogh, Capt Keogh, R N; Lord Chief Baron and Miss Pigott, Dr, Mrs, and Miss Nugent; General Wardlaw, Colonel M'Kerlie, Mr Sergeant and Mrs and Miss Armstrong; Col, Mrs, and the Misses Maude; Col, Mrs, and Miss Hillier; Mr Heron, M P; Mr and Mrs Watters, Col and Mrs Wynyard, Dr and the Misses Kennedy, the Attorney General and Mrs Palles, the Solicitor General and Mrs Law, Col, Mrs, and Miss Lake; Lady and the Misses Butler, Mr Butler, Col and Mrs Colthurst Vesey, and Miss Walton; Mr, Lady Fanny and Miss Lambert; Mr E C Guinness, Mr and Mrs MMorer O'Ferrall, Mr and Mrs Leonard Morrogh, Sir Bernard and Lady Burke, Mr G and Mrs G Brooke and Miss Brooke, Mr and Mrs Roe, Mr Vance, M P, Mrs and Miss Vance; Col and Mrs Primrose, Lieut Col Ferdall [?], Col and Mrs Goodlake and Miss Alexander, Mr Alison, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Barton, Mr Justice Flanagan, Mrs and Miss Flanagan, Mer J. N. Lentaigne, Mr Johnson, Captain Harrison, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Maturin; Mr Justice Morris and Mrs Morris, Mr and Mrs Mazlere [?] Brady, Major, Mrs, and Miss Wilkinson; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Donnelly; Mr and Mrs Cruise, Mrs Power, Mr Braon Fitzgerald and Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Henry Yates Thompson, Mr Courtenay Boyle, Colonel Forster, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Taylor, Mr Bland and Mrs Godfrey Bland, Mr and Miss Dillon, Mr and Mrs Wallace, Mr M'Kenna, Mr Cullinane, Mr Armstrong, Mr C E [?] Dobbin, Mr J A Blake, Major and Mrs Papillon, Capt and Mrs Keane, Mr E Pretty, Mr, Mrs John L O Ferrall and Miss O'Ferrall, Mrs and Miss Walsh, Mr and Mrs R Howard Brook, Mrs and Miss Brook, Mrs and the Misses Blake, Mr and Mrs J Warren, Sir John Gray, M P, Lady, and Miss Gray; Colonel and Mrs Frank Chaplin, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Hemphill; Sir R, Lady and Miss Kane, Mrs and Miss Courtenay, Mr Arthur Courtenay, Mr G Courtenay, Mr E Hardtop, A D C; Mr Bellew, Dr and Mrs Nedley, Dr and Mrs Newell, Mr and Mrs Freeman, Mr and Mrs Geale, Captain Hutten, A D C; Mr and Mrs Adair and Miss Wadsworth, Captain and Mrs J M Benthall, Sir R, Lady, and the Misses M'Causlend [?]; Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Newell Barron; Mr Hawkins, Colonel Goodlake and the Officers of the Coldstream Guards; Captain Spain, R N, and the Officers (4) of her Majesty's ship Vanguard; Colonel Radcliffe and Officers (4), Royal Artillery; Colonel Spade and Officers (4) 1st King's Dragoon Guards; Colonel Ainslie and Officers (4), 1st Royal Dragoons; Colonel Thompson and Officers (4), 14th Hussars; Colonel Ross and Officers (4), 4th Battalion Rifle Brigade; Colonel Hawkins and Officers (4), Royal Engineers; Colonel Gloster and Officers (4), 97th Regiment; Lieutenant-Colonel Maunsell and Officers (4), 13th Regiment.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Telegraph'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 7a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002093/18730114/044/0004. Print title ''The Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;February
March
April
===May===
'''28 May 1873, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1874==
January
February
March
April
===May===

==== 1874 May, Early ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;As monarchists’ hopes flared, the Catholic Church, too, enjoyed a conspicuous revival. The National Assembly approved a design for a new basilica for Paris. Intended as an act of collective atonement, Sacré-Coeur was to perch atop Montmartre, immediately above where Nadar’s balloons had been launched and where the radicals’ insurrection had broken out. Excavations began in early May 1874 ....

But the focus of the penance the basilica was intended to embody gradually shifted from the moral decline of French society in general to the despicable excesses of the Commune. In 1872 Archbishop Darboy’s successor claimed to have had a vision as he climbed the Butte Montmartre. The clouds dispersed, and he realized that it was there, “where the martyrs” were (he meant the murdered generals Lecomte and Clément-Thomas), that a new church should be built. And when the Assembly voted to proceed with the construction, legislators specified that its purpose was to “expiate the crimes of the Commune.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; (464 of 667)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===June===
'''3 June 1874, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''8 December 1874, Tuesday''': &quot;CHATSWORTH, Tuesday, December 8th, 1874. — We are come to the last slide of the Chatsworth magic lantern: the Duke of Cambridge and his equerry, a funny little man called Tyrwhitt, of no particular age, in a grey wig; Lord Carlingford and Ly. Waldegrave, the Spencers, Mr. Leveson, Cavendish.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ladylucycavendish.blogspot.com/2010/12/08dec1874-chatsworth-magic-lantern.html|title=Lady Lucy Cavendish: 08Dec1874, The Chatsworth Magic Lantern|last=H|first=Denise|date=2010-12-04|website=Lady Lucy Cavendish|access-date=2025-06-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==1875==
Disraeli's progressive legislation for labor rights:&lt;blockquote&gt;In 1875, he passed a series of enlightened acts protecting labor rights, arguing they were as important as property rights. Two of the laws ensured that workers would have the same recourse as employers when contracts were breached, and made peaceful picketing legal, protecting unions from charges of conspiracy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (578 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;After women who owned property were allowed by Parliament to stand for local school-board elections in 1870, &quot;Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, the first woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain — in 1865 — stood and was elected to her local board five years later.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (199 of 1203)

The relationship between Swinburne and Lord Houghton:&lt;blockquote&gt;...not all Lord Houghton's children appreciated the catholicity of &quot;Papa's&quot; taste in friends: &quot;Swinburne (in a very excited state) came in in the evening,&quot; wrote Florence Milnes to her brother in 1875: &quot;He is madder than ever, to my astonishment he flopped down on one knee in front of me, &amp; announced that my hair had grown darker. This was rather embarrassing, and he is also so deaf now, which does not make it easier to talk to him.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Pope-Hennessy Lord Crewe.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|5}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''26 May 1875, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales attended, as did a number of others of the royal family, including Princess Louise and Lorne.

June
July
===August===
'''August through October 1875''' Richard Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and son Robert Milnes toured the U.S. and Canada:&lt;blockquote&gt;They set off in the steamer s.s Sarmatian from Liverpool in August 1875, stopping at Ireland to pick up the usual load of emigrants bound for the U.S.A. The most interesting among the passengers was 'Mr. Butler, author of Erewhon, who is very amusing and clever though infidel,' but, although he played whist with Samuel Butler, the young man was far more interested in the Eustace Smiths (parents of his friend W. H. Smith), and in a Canadian family named Macpherson, the youngest of whose two daughters, the dark-eyed Isobel, caught his fancy: he saw them afterwards in Toronto, and when they parted she gave him two larger than carte-de-visite photographs of herself, he gave her a smaller one of himself together with the inevitable volume of his father's verse.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|10}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;September
October
November
December

==1876==
Disraeli pushed through the Cruelty to Animals Act in order to please Queen Victoria. This act &quot;forced researchers to demonstrate that any experiments with animals involving pain were absolutely necessary, and ensured they would be anesthetized if so.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (679 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''11 May 1876''': In the midst of the Aylesford scandal, the Prince of Wales returned from a journey to Egypt and India, etc.:&lt;blockquote&gt;However harassed and exhausted, the Prince and Princess of Wales would put up a good show. Within an hour of their arrival home they set forth to attend a gala performance at Covent Garden Opera House. It was a brave decision to face the public and allow an immediate opportunity for demonstration. The Prince and Princess were rewarded when the audience rose to its feet to give them a standing ovation before the start of every act, as well as at the end, of Verdi's Ballo in Maschera.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|63}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''27 May 1877''': Lily Langtry:&lt;blockquote&gt;Her big moment on May 27, 1877, when Sir Allen Young, the arctic explorer, invited her to late supper in his house, where it had been arranged that the Prince of Wales should meet her after the opera. The result was all that could have been expected. Mrs. Langtry became the Prince's first openly recognised mistress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|69}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''31 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales did not attend, as he was ill.

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1877==
&quot;In 1877, unemployment was 4.7 percent; by 1879, it had risen to 11.4 percent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (690 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''30 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''15 December 1877'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On Dec. 15, 1877, the Queen honoured Lord Beaconsfield, the Premier, with a visit at Hughenden Manor. Her Majesty, accompanied by Princess Beatrice and attended by General Ponsonby and the Marchioness of Ely, left Windsor at 12.40 and proceeded by special train to High Wycombe, which was reached at 1.15. The Premier received the Queen at the station. A lofty triumphal arch spanned the entrance to the station-yard, and beneath this the royal party drove into the gaily decorated little town. The reception along the route was of the heartiest, and the drive of two miles to Hughenden was one long triumph. Lord Beaconsfield, who had preceded the party, welcomed the Queen at his own door. Lunch was served, and her Majesty remained about two hours. Before leaving she planted a memorial tree.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Queen's Glorious Reign.&quot; ''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, May 27, 1899; pp. 757–765?; Issue 3136. Queen's Glorious Reign [Supplement]: 762?&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==1878==
January
February
March
April
May
===June===
'''5 June 1878, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

July
August
September
October
===November===
'''8 November 1878''': from the journal of George, Duke of Cambridge:&lt;blockquote&gt;''November'' 8. — Gave farewell diner to the Lornes; Louise and Lorne, Augusta, Mary and Francis, Arthur, Leopold, Gleichens, J. Macdonald and self, and played at Nap afterwards. It was a good and nice little dinner.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sheppard, Edgar, Ed. ''George, Duke of Cambridge: A Memoir of His Private Life, Based on the Journals and Correspondence of His Royal Highness''. Vol. 2, 1871–1904. New York: Longmans, Green, 1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=dFoMAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;December

==1879==
===January===
'''12 January 1879'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On 12 January 1879 Robert Milnes came of age, an event celebrated at Fryston by a tenants' ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''28 January 1879''': Brett &quot;Harte kicked off his tour at the Crystal Palace in Sydenham on January 28, 1879.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nissen, Alex. ''Brett Harte: Prince and Pauper''. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|174}}

February
March

===April===
'''Early April 1879''' or so, probably, Bret Harte got &quot;an invitation to dine the same evening with Arthur Sullivan and the Prince of Wales&quot; as a dinner in Birmingham where Harte met T. Edgar Pemberton.&lt;ref&gt;Scharnhorst, Gary. ''Bret Harte: Opening the American Literary West''. Norman, OK: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|152}}
===May===
'''28 May 1879, Wednesday''': Derby Day; the Prince and Princess of Wales attended.

===June===
'''June 1879''', Robert Milnes became engaged to &quot;Sibyl Marcia, a daughter of a North-country baronet, Sir Frederick Graham of Netherby.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}} Parties must have followed.

July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''28 December 1879''': The Tay Bridge Disaster: The Tay Bridge collapsed with a train on it. The weather was very bad, with gale-force winds and rain.

The ''Times'' reported that the average high temperature for the week ending December 31, 1879, was 53° F. and the low was 20° F.

In his column &quot;What the World Says&quot; in the 21 January 1880 World, Edmund Yates writes the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;How am I to describe better the magnificence of the Earl and Countess of Rosslyn’s ball at Euston Lodge last month, than by calling attention to the fact that M. Carlo, the eminent Knightsbridge coiffeur, arrived early in the day to crimp and powder the lacqueys? My informant adds, however, that the curled darlings were rather the worse for the festivities towards night. Was it not enough to turn their heads in every sense of the word?&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Edmund Yates, &quot;What the World Says,&quot; ''The World: A Journal for Men and Women''.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|21 Jan. 1880, p. 8, col. b.}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''31 December 1879''': Edmund Yates, editor of The World: A Journal for Men and Women, in his column &quot;What the World Says,&quot; describes a private viewing at the Grosvenor Gallery:&lt;blockquote&gt;The private view at the Grosvenor on the last day of the year gave people something to do on a desperately wet afternoon. The artistic dresses were perhaps in greater force than ever; indeed the faces and the hair and the attitudes pursued me to my bed, and gave me many a nightmare. I suppose the plain woman of all time has had the ambition to be looked at: centuries of failure have at last been crowned with a real success. Besides the Cimabue Browns there was an interesting menagerie of real lions, artistic, literary, and clerical. The artists were numerous, and their host and hostess seemed to enjoy themselves very thoroughly.

Frequenters of the picture private views have a new sensation this winter. Last season they mobbed beauty: now hideously-attired unkempt dowdiness provokes the stare. The prize for the new style seems generally awarded to a rhubarb coloured flannel Ulster and a cart-wheel beaver hat, which pervaded both the private views last week. [2 private views last week, one at the Grosvenor]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7 Jan. 1880, p. 9}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The official premiere of ''The Pirates of Penzance'' occurred in New York City on 31 December 1879 at the Fifth Avenue Theatre, to establish international copyright. Gilbert and Sullivan were there with the cast. The performance was a social event: attending were Mrs. Vanderbilt and Mrs. Astor.

==Works Cited==
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      <text bytes="31255" sha1="lzti6ovuqct2qyrnvas17ca54j1dm87" xml:space="preserve">==Time Line==
[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] 1870s [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==1870==
&quot;Until 1870 all of the money women earned belonged to their husbands, and until 1882 their property did too, even after a divorce or separation.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698 of 1203)

In 1870 Parliament debated and defeated the first bill for women's suffrage, but allowed &quot;women who owned property ... to stand for election to school boards.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698–699 of 1203)

&quot;The bulk of Irish farmers did not own their land, and instead leased it from landlords, the majority of whom lived in England. In 1870, only 3 percent of agricultural holdings were occupied by owners.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (742 of 1203)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Arthur Sullivan were at the same dinner party in 1870?

Another dinner party had as guests Charles Dickens, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Tenniel and George Du Maurier.

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1871==
Although Queen Victoria had opened Parliament for the first time in February 1866, when people saw her for the first time in years as her open carriage made its way, she was unpopular because it seemed she was not working. Gladstone was Prime Minister.&lt;blockquote&gt;Between 1871 and 1874, eighty-five Republican Clubs were founded in Britain, protesting, among other things, the &quot;expensiveness and uselessness of the monarchy&quot; and Bertie's &quot;immoral example.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;Baird, Julia. ''Victoria the Queen, an Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire''. Random House, 2016. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria-the-queen/id953835024.&lt;/ref&gt; (617 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&quot;The 1871 Royal Commission on the Contagious Diseases Acts ... declared there was no comparison to be made between prostitutes and their clients: 'With the one sex the offence is committed as a matter of gain, with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (704 of 1203)

=== January ===
Germany is united under King William I of Prussia. Julia Baird says, &quot;At the same time, Italy captured and annexed the Papal States, which had been under the direct rule of the Pope since the 700s and had lost their protector in Napoleon III.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (646 of 1203)

==== 4 January 1871, Wednesday ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;INVITATION BALL.
&lt;p&gt;On Wednesday evening last Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards gave an invitation ball, which was held in the Drapers’ Hall (kindly placed at their disposal by the Drapers’ Company). The following ladies and gentlemen were amongst those who received invitations The Marquis and Marchioness of Hertford; the Earl and Countess of Aylesford; Lady A. N. Finch, Lord Guernsey, and the Hon. Mr. Finch; Lord and Lady Leigh and Miss Leigh; Lord and Lady Henley and Miss Henley, Miss Elwes, Lord and Lady Wrottealey, Lord and Lady Manners; C. N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P.; Captain, Mrs., and Miss Adams; E. Petre, Esq., and Lady Gwendoline Petre; J. Beech, Esq., Mrs. and Miss Beech, and Mr. Beech, jun.; Mr. and Mrs. Turner; Mr. and Mrs. Fetherstone Dilke, Mrs. and the Misses Fetherstone, Mr. Fetherstone, and Mr. Beaumont Fetherstone; Mr. and Mrs. P. A. Muntz; Captain and Mrs. Boultbee, of Knowle; Mr. C. M. Caldecott, Mrs. Caldecott, and the Misses Caldecott; the Rev. A. Fanshawe and Mrs. Fanshawe; Captain and Mrs. Battine; the Rev. S. C. Spencer Smith; the Rev. R. H. Baynes, M.A., vicar of St. Michael’s; the Rev. H. T. Harris, (Christ Church); General and Mr. Richmond Jones; Colonel F. Chaplin, and the Officers of the 4th Dragoon Guards, stationed at Northampton; Captain Thornelow, and the Officers of the Royal Artillery, at Weedon; the officers of the 4th Royal Regiment at Weedon; Mr. and Mrs. E. Wood; Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Wood; the Colonel and officers of the First Warwickshire Militia; Mrs. and Miss Alston, and Mr. Alston, jun., of Elmdon; Mr. and Mrs. F. Paget; Mr. and Mrs. Gulson; Captain Thomson; Captain and Mrs. Raleigh King; Mrs. Phillipson; Lord and Lady Mountgarret; the Honourable Miss Butler; Mr. and Mrs. Courtenay Lord; the Hon. Mrs. Twistleton; Mr. and the Misses Conant; Captain and Mrs. J. Marsland; Major and Mrs. Edlman; Mr. and Mrs. Astley; Mr. T. Lant, Mr. R. Lant and Mr. J. Lant, Mrs. and Miss Lant; Mr. W. T. Cavendish; Mr. and Mrs. A. Rotherham; the Marquis of Ormonde, of the first Life Guards; the Earl of Calludon, of the First Life Guards; Mrs. and the Misses Hobson; Mr P. Hobson, and Mrs. Hobson; Mr. and Mrs. Soames; Mr. and Mrs. Adderley, Sir John Rae Reid; Capt. and Mrs. Townshend, of Caldecote Hall; Lieut.-Colonel Swinfen and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Leeds; Capt. Marsden and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Birmingham; Colonel, Mrs., and Miss Bourne; Mr. and Mrs. Wyley Lord; Captain and Mrs. Thursby; Mr. and Mrs Morrice; Lieut.-Colonel Wirgman; Mr. and Mrs. J. Rotherham; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]]; Mr. and Mrs. Rotherham; Mr and Mrs John Sankey and the Misses Sankey; Mrs. and the Misses Murphy; Mr. Bibby (4th Hussars), Captain Gist (7th Hussars), Mr. Gregg (8th Hussars), Mr. Hamilton (7th Dragoon Guards), Colonel Rattray, Mr and Mrs. R. Boyd, &amp;c, &amp;c.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The string band of the 5th Dragoon Guards, under the direction of Mr. Sidney Jones, performed the following selection of music:— Quadrille, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Marian; Galop, Bonderbryllup; Lancers, Knight of St. Patrick; Valse, Hydropaten; Galop, Flick and Flock; Quadrille, Princess of Trebizonde; Valse, the Belle of the Ball; Galop, the Fox Hunters; Valse, the Dragoon Guards; Lancers, the Gaiety; Valse, the Beautiful Danube; Valse, Wiener Kinder; Quadrille, the Fest; Galop, the Village Rose; Valse, the Geraldine; Lancers, Merry Tunes; Galop, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Various; Galop, Glorioso.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Invitation Ball.&quot; ''Coventry Standard'' 6 January 1871, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000683/18710106/100/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== February ===

==== Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball ====
1871 February 17, Friday, the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; hosted a ball in Birmingham:&lt;blockquote&gt;LEAMINGTON.

B&lt;small&gt;ACHELORS'&lt;/small&gt; B&lt;small&gt;ALL&lt;/small&gt;.&lt;p&gt;— Last night the bachelors of the Tennis Court Club gave a grand ball at the Royal Assembly Rooms, Regent Street. The ball was one of the most brilliant of the season, nearly four hundred of the ''élite'' of the town and neighbourhood having accepted the invitation of the bachelors. The ballroom was specially fitted up for the occasion, and a splendid supper was served in the adjoining rooms, where refreshments were also provided. Coote and Tiney's band was specially engaged for the occasion, and played a selection of the newest and most popular dance music. Amongst the distinguished guests present were — The High Sheriff and Mrs. J. T. Arkwright, Lady Arbuthnott, Lord and Lady Conyers, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], Viscount and Viscountess Mountgarret and the Hon. Miss Butler, Sir John and Lady Blois, Sir Thomas Biddulph, the Hon. Miss Somerville, Sir William and Lady Fairfax, the Hon. Charles L. Butler, Rev. Sir John Rae, General and Mrs. Richmond Jones, Major Eldman, Major and Mrs. James Ashton, Major and Mrs. Boothby, Colonel Ruttie, Colonel Duberly, Colonel and Mrs. Machen, Colonel Rattray, Capt. and Mrs. Kennedy, Capt. W. J. Hall, Capt. Hodge, Capt. and Mrs. Morgan, Capt. and Mrs. Pearse, Capt. Roberts, Capt. Story, Mr. and Mrs. Featherstone Dilke (Maxstoke Castle) and Miss Dixie, Mr. C. M., Miss, and Miss M. A. Caldecott (Holbrooke Grange), Mr. and Mrs. J. Dugdale (Wroxhall Abbey), Mr. E. Greaves, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. C. L. Adderley (Hams Hall), and Capt. and Mrs. Hatherall. Several of the officers from the dragoons and artillery at Coventry and Birmingham were also present. The bachelors who gave the ball were twenty-eight in number.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Leamington.&quot; &quot;District News.&quot; ''Birmingham Morning News'' 18 February 1871, Saturday: 7 [of 8, print and digital], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005826/18710218/114/0007. Print and digital title are the same.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== March ===

=== April ===

==== 18 April 1871 ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Karl Marx “was commissioned by the General Council of the International to write a pamphlet about the Paris [377–378] Commune.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Smee, Sebastian. ''Paris in Ruins: Love, War, and the Birth of Impressionism''. W. W. Norton, 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|377–378 of 667}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===May===

==== 9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;THE QUEEN'S DRAWING-ROOM.

The Queen held a Drawing-room at Buckingham Palace on Tuesday afternoon. The Priuce of Wales, Prince Arthur, Prince Leopold, and Princess Beatrice were present. Her Majesty, accompanied by the Prince of Wales and the other members of the royal family, entered the Throne Room shortly after three o'clock. The Queen wore a black moire antique dress with a train, long white tulle veil with a coronet of diamonds. Her Majesty also wore a necklace of diamonds and amethysts, the Riband and Star of the Order of the Garter, the Orders of Victoria and Albert and Louise of Prussia, and the Saxe Coburg and Gotha Family Order. Princess Beatrice wore a dress of white tulle over a rich white silk petticoat looped up with lilies of the valley and apple blossom; ornaments — pearls and diamonds.

The presentations to Her Majesty were about 280 in number, and included the following:— Mrs Atlay, by the Countess Grey; Miss Backhouse, by her mother, Mrs Backhouse; Miss Charlesworth, by her aunt, Frances Lady Hawke; Miss Backhouse Fox, by her aunt, Mrs Backhouse; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], by her mother, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|the Hon. Mrs Howard]]; the Hon. Gwendoline Fitz-Alan Howard, by the Duchess of Sutherland; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Alice Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Louisa Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; Miss Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Miss Agnes Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Sir Henry Ingilby, Bart., by Earl Russell; Mrs Frank Lascelles, by Lady Edward Cavendish; Mrs Gerald Liddell, marriage, by the Countess of Normanby.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Official News.&quot; ''Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer'' 11 May 1871, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000686/18710511/074/0003. Same print title and p.n.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''24 May 1871, Wednesday''': Derby Day. Baron Rothschild's Favonius won. The Prince of Wales attended.

June
July
August
September
===October===
'''October 1871'''&lt;blockquote&gt;At Londesborough Lodge near Scarborough, where Lady Londesborough gave a royal house party in October 1871, not only [ 41/42 ] were the bathrooms few but the drains seeped into the drinking water. Several guests, including the Prince [of Wales] and his groom and Lord Chesterfield, contracted typhoid fever. When Chesterfield and the groom died, the doctors abandoned hope for the Prince.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|41–42}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Prince of Wales recovered on 14 December 1871.

November
December

==1872==
January
February
March
April
===May===
'''29 May 1872, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
===August===
'''August 1872''': The &quot;dance on the cruiser Ariadne&quot; probably occurred in August 1872:&lt;blockquote&gt;When his [the Prince of Wales'] brother, the Duke of Edinburgh, married the attractive Grand Duchess Marie, daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, her family made a fuss because she was not granted precedence above the Princess of Wales. Albert Edward soothed ruffled feelings by inviting the Tsarevitch and his wife Marie Feodorovna (who was Alexandra's sister) to stay for two months and be entertained at Cowes. ...&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

... At the dance on the cruiser Ariadne which the Prince gave in honour of the Tsarevitch and his Grand Duchess,&quot; Lord Randolph Churchill met the 19-year-old &quot;Miss Jennie Jerome of New York.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42–43}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

September
October
November
December

==1873==

=== January ===

==== 13 January 1873, Monday ====

==== Ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge ====
On Tuesday, 14 January 1873, the Dublin Evening Telegraph reported that the Marquis of Hartington's ball had taken place the evening before.&lt;blockquote&gt;The Marquis of Hartington gave a ball last evening at the Chief Secretary's Lodge, to their Excellencies the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess Spencer, who were accompanied by the Dowager Countess Spencer, the Ladies Sarah and Victoria Spencer and the Hon Robert Spencer, Lord and Lady Charles Bruce, and Major Stirling, A D C.&lt;p&gt;

The following had the honour of receiving invitations to meet their Excellencies — The Duke of Leinster, the Marquis and Marchioness of Kildare, the Ladies Fitzgerald, the Marquis and Marchioness of Drogheda, the Earl and Countess of Listowel, Lord and Lady Edward Cavendish, the Earl of Charleville, the Lord Chancellor and Lady O'Hagan, Viscount, Viscountess, the Hon Misses, and Hon Henry Monck; the Archbishop of Dublin, the Hon Mrs and the Misses Trench; Lord Talbot de Malahide and the Hon Francis Talbot, Lord and Lady Sandhurst and Captain Bang, A D C; Lady Cloncurry, Hon Emily and Hon Mary Lawless, Viscount, Viscountess, Hon Georgiana, and Hon Beatrice [de?] Vesci; Lord and Lady Kilmaize [?], Hon Gertrude [?] Browze, Lord and Lady Ventry, Hon Norah Westenra, Lord and Lady Athlumney, Lord, Lady, and Hon D Plunket, M P; Viscountess and the Hon. Miss Netterivlle, Capt the Hon Mrs Vesey, Captain and Lady Julia Follett, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guiness and the Ladies White, the Hon H W L Corry, Lord and Lady and the Hon Miss O'Neill, Viscount Hawarden, the Hon Florence Maude, the Hon. Clementina Maude, the Hon Jenico and Mrs Preston, the Hon Henry Leeson, Colonel and the Hon Mrs Caulfield, Mr and the Hon Mrs Robert Hobart, Captain, Lady Mary and Miss Lindsay; Mr Ion [?] Trent Hamilton, M P; Mr Bagwell; the Hon Mrs and the Misses Bagwell, and Mr Bagwell; Colonel the Hon L and Mrs Curzon Smyth, Mr, Lady Margaret, and the Misses Stronge [?]; Mr and the Hon Mrs O'Hagan, Hon Charles Bourke, Hon Mrs Alfred and Lady Kathleen Bury, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Hon Mrs, Lady Alice, and Lady Louisa Howard]]; Captain, the Hon Mrs, and Miss Donaldson; Dr and Miss Bans, Mrs Grattan Bellew, Sir Edward and Miss Borough, Mr Arthur Cane, Sir Dominic, Lady, and Miss Corrigan; Mr Corrigan, Mr and Mrs Gustavus Cornwall and Miss Cornwall, Mr D'Arcy, M P, and Mrs D'Arcy; Mr Baron Dowse [?], and Mrs and Miss Dowse, Mr Baron Deasy and Mrs Deasy, Dr, Mrs, and Miss de Ricci; Dr and Miss Hatchell, Sir George and Lady Hudson, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Huband; Mr Arthur Huband, Miss Caroline Huband, Mr and Mrs Arthur Hume, Dr Hughes, Mr Henry Jephsen and Miss Jephsen, Mr Kearney and the Misses Kearney, Captain Kearney, A D C; Captain Lascelles, A D C; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Kirwan; Mr Justice Lawson and Mrs Lawson, Mr and Mrs W Le Fanu, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Lentaigne; Sir George L'Estrange and the Misses L'Estrange, the Lord and Lady Mayoress, and the Misses Mackey; the Lord Chief Justice Monahan, Mrs and Miss Monahan; Sir J, Lady, and Miss Power; Mr John Talbot Power, M P; Col, Mrs, and Miss Radcliffe; the Master of the Rolls, Mrs and Miss Sullivan; Capt and Mrs Moorsom, A D C; General Sir Thomas and Lady Steel, Captain and Mrs Brownrigg, A D C, Mr Granville Milner, Capt, Mrs and Miss Talbot, Colonel, Mrs, and the Misses White; Sir John Stewart Wood, Lady and the Misses Wood; Mrs and the Misses Williams, Mr Justice Fitzgerald and the Hon Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr Justice Barry and Mrs Barry, Mr Sergeant Sherlock, M P, Mrs and Miss Sherlock; Mr Sheriock, the Right Hon W H Conan, M P, and Mrs Cogan; Mr Justice Keogh and Mrs Keogh, Mr Keogh, Capt Keogh, R N; Lord Chief Baron and Miss Pigott, Dr, Mrs, and Miss Nugent; General Wardlaw, Colonel M'Kerlie, Mr Sergeant and Mrs and Miss Armstrong; Col, Mrs, and the Misses Maude; Col, Mrs, and Miss Hillier; Mr Heron, M P; Mr and Mrs Watters, Col and Mrs Wynyard, Dr and the Misses Kennedy, the Attorney General and Mrs Palles, the Solicitor General and Mrs Law, Col, Mrs, and Miss Lake; Lady and the Misses Butler, Mr Butler, Col and Mrs Colthurst Vesey, and Miss Walton; Mr, Lady Fanny and Miss Lambert; Mr E C Guinness, Mr and Mrs MMorer O'Ferrall, Mr and Mrs Leonard Morrogh, Sir Bernard and Lady Burke, Mr G and Mrs G Brooke and Miss Brooke, Mr and Mrs Roe, Mr Vance, M P, Mrs and Miss Vance; Col and Mrs Primrose, Lieut Col Ferdall [?], Col and Mrs Goodlake and Miss Alexander, Mr Alison, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Barton, Mr Justice Flanagan, Mrs and Miss Flanagan, Mer J. N. Lentaigne, Mr Johnson, Captain Harrison, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Maturin; Mr Justice Morris and Mrs Morris, Mr and Mrs Mazlere [?] Brady, Major, Mrs, and Miss Wilkinson; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Donnelly; Mr and Mrs Cruise, Mrs Power, Mr Braon Fitzgerald and Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Henry Yates Thompson, Mr Courtenay Boyle, Colonel Forster, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Taylor, Mr Bland and Mrs Godfrey Bland, Mr and Miss Dillon, Mr and Mrs Wallace, Mr M'Kenna, Mr Cullinane, Mr Armstrong, Mr C E [?] Dobbin, Mr J A Blake, Major and Mrs Papillon, Capt and Mrs Keane, Mr E Pretty, Mr, Mrs John L O Ferrall and Miss O'Ferrall, Mrs and Miss Walsh, Mr and Mrs R Howard Brook, Mrs and Miss Brook, Mrs and the Misses Blake, Mr and Mrs J Warren, Sir John Gray, M P, Lady, and Miss Gray; Colonel and Mrs Frank Chaplin, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Hemphill; Sir R, Lady and Miss Kane, Mrs and Miss Courtenay, Mr Arthur Courtenay, Mr G Courtenay, Mr E Hardtop, A D C; Mr Bellew, Dr and Mrs Nedley, Dr and Mrs Newell, Mr and Mrs Freeman, Mr and Mrs Geale, Captain Hutten, A D C; Mr and Mrs Adair and Miss Wadsworth, Captain and Mrs J M Benthall, Sir R, Lady, and the Misses M'Causlend [?]; Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Newell Barron; Mr Hawkins, Colonel Goodlake and the Officers of the Coldstream Guards; Captain Spain, R N, and the Officers (4) of her Majesty's ship Vanguard; Colonel Radcliffe and Officers (4), Royal Artillery; Colonel Spade and Officers (4) 1st King's Dragoon Guards; Colonel Ainslie and Officers (4), 1st Royal Dragoons; Colonel Thompson and Officers (4), 14th Hussars; Colonel Ross and Officers (4), 4th Battalion Rifle Brigade; Colonel Hawkins and Officers (4), Royal Engineers; Colonel Gloster and Officers (4), 97th Regiment; Lieutenant-Colonel Maunsell and Officers (4), 13th Regiment.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Telegraph'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 7a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002093/18730114/044/0004. Print title ''The Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;February
March
April

===May===
'''28 May 1873, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1874==
January
February
March
April
===May===

==== 1874 May, Early ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;As monarchists’ hopes flared, the Catholic Church, too, enjoyed a conspicuous revival. The National Assembly approved a design for a new basilica for Paris. Intended as an act of collective atonement, Sacré-Coeur was to perch atop Montmartre, immediately above where Nadar’s balloons had been launched and where the radicals’ insurrection had broken out. Excavations began in early May 1874 ....

But the focus of the penance the basilica was intended to embody gradually shifted from the moral decline of French society in general to the despicable excesses of the Commune. In 1872 Archbishop Darboy’s successor claimed to have had a vision as he climbed the Butte Montmartre. The clouds dispersed, and he realized that it was there, “where the martyrs” were (he meant the murdered generals Lecomte and Clément-Thomas), that a new church should be built. And when the Assembly voted to proceed with the construction, legislators specified that its purpose was to “expiate the crimes of the Commune.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; (464 of 667)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===June===
'''3 June 1874, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''8 December 1874, Tuesday''': &quot;CHATSWORTH, Tuesday, December 8th, 1874. — We are come to the last slide of the Chatsworth magic lantern: the Duke of Cambridge and his equerry, a funny little man called Tyrwhitt, of no particular age, in a grey wig; Lord Carlingford and Ly. Waldegrave, the Spencers, Mr. Leveson, Cavendish.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ladylucycavendish.blogspot.com/2010/12/08dec1874-chatsworth-magic-lantern.html|title=Lady Lucy Cavendish: 08Dec1874, The Chatsworth Magic Lantern|last=H|first=Denise|date=2010-12-04|website=Lady Lucy Cavendish|access-date=2025-06-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==1875==
Disraeli's progressive legislation for labor rights:&lt;blockquote&gt;In 1875, he passed a series of enlightened acts protecting labor rights, arguing they were as important as property rights. Two of the laws ensured that workers would have the same recourse as employers when contracts were breached, and made peaceful picketing legal, protecting unions from charges of conspiracy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (578 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;After women who owned property were allowed by Parliament to stand for local school-board elections in 1870, &quot;Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, the first woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain — in 1865 — stood and was elected to her local board five years later.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (199 of 1203)

The relationship between Swinburne and Lord Houghton:&lt;blockquote&gt;...not all Lord Houghton's children appreciated the catholicity of &quot;Papa's&quot; taste in friends: &quot;Swinburne (in a very excited state) came in in the evening,&quot; wrote Florence Milnes to her brother in 1875: &quot;He is madder than ever, to my astonishment he flopped down on one knee in front of me, &amp; announced that my hair had grown darker. This was rather embarrassing, and he is also so deaf now, which does not make it easier to talk to him.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Pope-Hennessy Lord Crewe.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|5}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''26 May 1875, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales attended, as did a number of others of the royal family, including Princess Louise and Lorne.

June
July
===August===
'''August through October 1875''' Richard Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and son Robert Milnes toured the U.S. and Canada:&lt;blockquote&gt;They set off in the steamer s.s Sarmatian from Liverpool in August 1875, stopping at Ireland to pick up the usual load of emigrants bound for the U.S.A. The most interesting among the passengers was 'Mr. Butler, author of Erewhon, who is very amusing and clever though infidel,' but, although he played whist with Samuel Butler, the young man was far more interested in the Eustace Smiths (parents of his friend W. H. Smith), and in a Canadian family named Macpherson, the youngest of whose two daughters, the dark-eyed Isobel, caught his fancy: he saw them afterwards in Toronto, and when they parted she gave him two larger than carte-de-visite photographs of herself, he gave her a smaller one of himself together with the inevitable volume of his father's verse.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|10}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;September
October
November
December

==1876==
Disraeli pushed through the Cruelty to Animals Act in order to please Queen Victoria. This act &quot;forced researchers to demonstrate that any experiments with animals involving pain were absolutely necessary, and ensured they would be anesthetized if so.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (679 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''11 May 1876''': In the midst of the Aylesford scandal, the Prince of Wales returned from a journey to Egypt and India, etc.:&lt;blockquote&gt;However harassed and exhausted, the Prince and Princess of Wales would put up a good show. Within an hour of their arrival home they set forth to attend a gala performance at Covent Garden Opera House. It was a brave decision to face the public and allow an immediate opportunity for demonstration. The Prince and Princess were rewarded when the audience rose to its feet to give them a standing ovation before the start of every act, as well as at the end, of Verdi's Ballo in Maschera.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|63}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''27 May 1877''': Lily Langtry:&lt;blockquote&gt;Her big moment on May 27, 1877, when Sir Allen Young, the arctic explorer, invited her to late supper in his house, where it had been arranged that the Prince of Wales should meet her after the opera. The result was all that could have been expected. Mrs. Langtry became the Prince's first openly recognised mistress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|69}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''31 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales did not attend, as he was ill.

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1877==
&quot;In 1877, unemployment was 4.7 percent; by 1879, it had risen to 11.4 percent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (690 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''30 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''15 December 1877'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On Dec. 15, 1877, the Queen honoured Lord Beaconsfield, the Premier, with a visit at Hughenden Manor. Her Majesty, accompanied by Princess Beatrice and attended by General Ponsonby and the Marchioness of Ely, left Windsor at 12.40 and proceeded by special train to High Wycombe, which was reached at 1.15. The Premier received the Queen at the station. A lofty triumphal arch spanned the entrance to the station-yard, and beneath this the royal party drove into the gaily decorated little town. The reception along the route was of the heartiest, and the drive of two miles to Hughenden was one long triumph. Lord Beaconsfield, who had preceded the party, welcomed the Queen at his own door. Lunch was served, and her Majesty remained about two hours. Before leaving she planted a memorial tree.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Queen's Glorious Reign.&quot; ''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, May 27, 1899; pp. 757–765?; Issue 3136. Queen's Glorious Reign [Supplement]: 762?&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==1878==
January
February
March
April
May
===June===
'''5 June 1878, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

July
August
September
October
===November===
'''8 November 1878''': from the journal of George, Duke of Cambridge:&lt;blockquote&gt;''November'' 8. — Gave farewell diner to the Lornes; Louise and Lorne, Augusta, Mary and Francis, Arthur, Leopold, Gleichens, J. Macdonald and self, and played at Nap afterwards. It was a good and nice little dinner.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sheppard, Edgar, Ed. ''George, Duke of Cambridge: A Memoir of His Private Life, Based on the Journals and Correspondence of His Royal Highness''. Vol. 2, 1871–1904. New York: Longmans, Green, 1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=dFoMAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;December

==1879==
===January===
'''12 January 1879'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On 12 January 1879 Robert Milnes came of age, an event celebrated at Fryston by a tenants' ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''28 January 1879''': Brett &quot;Harte kicked off his tour at the Crystal Palace in Sydenham on January 28, 1879.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nissen, Alex. ''Brett Harte: Prince and Pauper''. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|174}}

February
March

===April===
'''Early April 1879''' or so, probably, Bret Harte got &quot;an invitation to dine the same evening with Arthur Sullivan and the Prince of Wales&quot; as a dinner in Birmingham where Harte met T. Edgar Pemberton.&lt;ref&gt;Scharnhorst, Gary. ''Bret Harte: Opening the American Literary West''. Norman, OK: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|152}}
===May===
'''28 May 1879, Wednesday''': Derby Day; the Prince and Princess of Wales attended.

===June===
'''June 1879''', Robert Milnes became engaged to &quot;Sibyl Marcia, a daughter of a North-country baronet, Sir Frederick Graham of Netherby.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}} Parties must have followed.

July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''28 December 1879''': The Tay Bridge Disaster: The Tay Bridge collapsed with a train on it. The weather was very bad, with gale-force winds and rain.

The ''Times'' reported that the average high temperature for the week ending December 31, 1879, was 53° F. and the low was 20° F.

In his column &quot;What the World Says&quot; in the 21 January 1880 World, Edmund Yates writes the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;How am I to describe better the magnificence of the Earl and Countess of Rosslyn’s ball at Euston Lodge last month, than by calling attention to the fact that M. Carlo, the eminent Knightsbridge coiffeur, arrived early in the day to crimp and powder the lacqueys? My informant adds, however, that the curled darlings were rather the worse for the festivities towards night. Was it not enough to turn their heads in every sense of the word?&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Edmund Yates, &quot;What the World Says,&quot; ''The World: A Journal for Men and Women''.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|21 Jan. 1880, p. 8, col. b.}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''31 December 1879''': Edmund Yates, editor of The World: A Journal for Men and Women, in his column &quot;What the World Says,&quot; describes a private viewing at the Grosvenor Gallery:&lt;blockquote&gt;The private view at the Grosvenor on the last day of the year gave people something to do on a desperately wet afternoon. The artistic dresses were perhaps in greater force than ever; indeed the faces and the hair and the attitudes pursued me to my bed, and gave me many a nightmare. I suppose the plain woman of all time has had the ambition to be looked at: centuries of failure have at last been crowned with a real success. Besides the Cimabue Browns there was an interesting menagerie of real lions, artistic, literary, and clerical. The artists were numerous, and their host and hostess seemed to enjoy themselves very thoroughly.

Frequenters of the picture private views have a new sensation this winter. Last season they mobbed beauty: now hideously-attired unkempt dowdiness provokes the stare. The prize for the new style seems generally awarded to a rhubarb coloured flannel Ulster and a cart-wheel beaver hat, which pervaded both the private views last week. [2 private views last week, one at the Grosvenor]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7 Jan. 1880, p. 9}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The official premiere of ''The Pirates of Penzance'' occurred in New York City on 31 December 1879 at the Fifth Avenue Theatre, to establish international copyright. Gilbert and Sullivan were there with the cast. The performance was a social event: attending were Mrs. Vanderbilt and Mrs. Astor.

==Works Cited==
{{reflist}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Liquidity Trap</title>
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      <text bytes="6660" sha1="ji59g8bc4me4nwakzpdm88ljddhh9np" xml:space="preserve">{{economics}}
Liquidity Trap is an economic state where interest rates are low and savings rates are high, which renders monetary policies to be ineffective. A gloomy economic outlook causes consumers to be hesitant in purchasing bonds or assets that have a higher yield than cash. Beyond investments, the period includes an overall decrease in economic activity; the decrease in consumption leads to less business hirings and unemployment. 

=== Public Notion ===
The negative outlook for the economy is shared between individuals and firms. Even when interests are low and investing would mean greater profits, individual investors are hesitant to purchase bonds because of the belief of a potential drop in bond prices ([https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/061715/how-bond-yield-affected-monetary-policy.asp#:~:text=A%20bond's%20yield%20is%20based,and%20bond%20yields%20to%20rise. from an anticipated rise in interest rates in the future, which lowers bond prices]), and firms are hesitant because they expect a further decrease in consumer demand. Both parties are not compelled to invest by the gloomy economic outlook; the preference to hold cash and fear to invest further diminishes economic activity and perpetuates deflation.  

=== Monetary Policy ===
In a period of low inflation, the common approach for the government or the central bank would be to increase the money supply, which would decrease interest rates. Following that, the general expectation is a rise in investments. However, during a liquidity trap, interest rates are already low (close to 0) so shifting the money supply will no longer have an impact on interest rates or induce economic activity; during periods of low interest rates, the decision of holding cash or investing money become perfectly elastic.  

=== Fiscal Approach ===
There have been various approaches, both in theory and in practice, that aim to tackle the liquidity trap throughout history. Classic Keynesian Economics believe in the adoption of fiscal policies to jumpstart economic activity while Japan adopted methods such as quantitative easing and inflation targeting.  

==== Expansionary Fiscal Policy ====
Keynesian economics, proposed by [[wikipedia:John_Maynard_Keynes|John Maynard Keynes]], suggests that expansionary fiscal policies have the effect of activating private spending. Increased government spending is a  expansionary fiscal policy that aims to increase aggregate demand. This typically includes increasing government borrowing and selling bonds to the private sector. Keynes believes this approach to be effective to stimulate economic activity. Additionally, as the demand for employment rises (from the multiplier effect from increased aggregate demand), unemployment will drop down. It is important to underline the importance of proper execution of this measure. When its country encountered the liquidity trap, the Japanese government allocated money to inefficient public works and business going under, resulting in wasted money.  

Decrease in income tax is another fiscal approach. This might contain a higher risk than increasing government spending. The aim of decreasing income tax is to increase disposable income in the private sector, thereby potentially stimulating more spending and investments. However, during a liquidity trap, if agents continue to possess a negative economic outlook, an increase in disposable income may not directly lead to an increase in their willingness to spend. 

=== Escaping Liquidity Trap ===
Looking at Japan in the last two decades of the 20th century (commonly referred to as the &quot;[[wikipedia:Lost_Decades|Lost Decades]]&quot;), we can see the impact within the Japanese economic bubble. Following the appreciation of the Japanese Yen, the Japanese government decided to compensate that through implementing a sharp expansionary monetary policy and advocated its banks to loan more to the private sector. The policy aimed to increase consumption and included a 50% decrease in interest rates. With the lowered interest rates and greater disposable income, the population was able to be involved in real-estate investment. Higher asset demand increased prices as well as collateral value, which caused greater price stimulation. On the other hand, a foul corporate accounting system, Zaitech, that allowed capital gains to be counted as profits accounted for the inflation of the stock market. Higher stock prices meant companies had higher valuations, which increased their power to borrow more money to fuel the bubble. It was too late when the government sensed the negative impacts of this inflation and decided to increase interest rates. The bubble bursted, leaving the majority of corporate Japan in debt. Banks lost monetary power because of the high volume lending, becoming &quot;zombie&quot; banks. 

To escape this low-growth period, Japanese academics proposed inflation targeting to manage expectations and increase economic activity, which will in turn decrease real interest rates. The idea was proposed to the BOJ on multiple accounts but was never put in motion. Some skepticism included: interest rates were already at zero-bound, so there were no traditional instruments in place to further lower interest rates; adopting inflation targeting during deflation to stimulate economic growth was unprecedented; economists at the BOJ believed that deflation caused by supply-side shocks may be desired since it showed technological innovation and lower prices; it was difficult to identify an acceptable range of price stability because of the economy's deflationary state, thus expected inflation was unidentifiable; inflation targeting will not achieve its goal in managing expectation because of the low credibility of banks during the time, low expectation of growth was said to remain.  

Instead, the BOJ settled on the Zero Interest Rate Policy (ZIRP). ZIRP was in play during two periods of time from 1999 to 2003. The aim of the first period was to eliminate Japan's further deflationary concerns, and the second was to ensure inflation returns to or rises above zero level. 

Quantitative easing was also adopted by the BOJ as a more aggressive policy during the early 2000s. The BOJ increased its purchase in asset-backed securities, long-term government bonds and equities to supply commercial banks with large excess reserves, which will allow larger amounts of private lending. Quantitative easing has been deemed an effective measure when short-term interests are near zero level as countries like the US, UK and ones in the EU implemented the measure after the 2008 financial crisis.

[[Category:Macroeconomics]]</text>
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    <title>C language in plain view</title>
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      <text bytes="9878" sha1="8f4dlm0r9u7hrql08y4ki4gtxbcdeb4" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260708.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming language]]

&lt;/br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>8f4dlm0r9u7hrql08y4ki4gtxbcdeb4</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion/Archives/22</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>304332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2817945</id>
      <parentid>2811255</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-08T21:25:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* IMHA Research Archives */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2817945</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136272" sha1="rz8iux7rs8r97ims83jb8b2shjl8khl" xml:space="preserve">{{archive|Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion}}

== [[IMHA Research Archives]] ==
{{archive top|The latest comment declared that this should be deleted—it's done. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:23, 8 July 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose to '''move to userspace''', including the subpages. I struggle to understand how Wikiversity readers are supposed to benefit from the material here and in the subpages. In the log, there is e.g. '10 February 2019 Marshallsumter discuss contribs deleted page IMHA Research Archives (content was: &quot;{&lt;nowiki/&gt;{Delete|Author request}} Thanks! -&quot;)', so the page was deleted before, but not the subpages.

We could also delete all the material if we have strong enough suspicion too much of it is copyright violation. In any case, moving to user space improves the matter a little by moving the content away from Google search. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 9 November 2025 (UTC)

:Looking at some sub-pages, they can be deleted e.g., because they only consist of broken links or are largely empty. I deleted a couple but haven't been through all to check. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)

As an example, let me give the wikitext content of [[IMHA Research Archives/3. Scientific litterature search, storage and use]]:
&lt;pre&gt;
==[[/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal/]]==

==[[/PubMed/]]==

==[[/Google and Google Scholar/]]==

==[[/Zotero/]]==

==[https://www.dropbox.com/sh/d91z7bcyelfvk42/AAAkIvjtBnnFMbiU9ZLOdVL9a/Andrioti_database%20sources0310.pptx?dl=0 Maritime health web portal ressources ]==
&lt;/pre&gt;
The wikilinks are red; the external link to dropbox says &quot;You don't have access&quot;. This was made in 2016. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:04, 11 November 2025 (UTC)

:I suggest delete -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:27, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I think we should avoid deletion as much as possible, instead moving to user space (bar copyvio, ethics violation, etc.). This is a good general principle. It greatly improves auditability and makes it so much easier for anyone to request undeletion since they know what content they are requesting for undeletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Do not recreate Wikiversity from the educational and research project to the personal blog. That will lead to the cancelation of it by WMF. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:44, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: The English Wikiversity has a long tradition of moving problematic content to user space, as per evidence collected at [[User:Dan_Polansky/About Wikiversity#Moving pages to userspace]]. If Wikimedia Foundation finds this problematic, they can start a discussion in Colloquium and state their concerns. They do not need to make explicit threats at first; they can start a discussion and explain why it is problematic. They can even do it from an anonymous IP and provide a well-articulated reasoning. And anyone else can start a discussion in Colloquium to change this tradition. I do not see why we should not want to change that tradition based on well-articulated, compelling reasoning. I see no reason why Juandev should be making threats instead of them, on a per RFD basis. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: If Juandev is ''sincere'' about deleting very-low-value items ''from user space'', he should perhaps demonstrate that by asking his pages like [[:cs:Uživatel:Juandev/Problémy/Kov/Repase dvířek elektroskříně]] to be deleted; otherwise, I register a ''glaring inconsistence''. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:43, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::What was the original delate page about @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]? I guess that would be crucial for the decission. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:48, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] the couple of pages I checked and deleted were much like @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] posted above i.e., headings with empty sections and/or broken links but no substantive content. But I think each sub-page needs checking. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:59, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::::So I'm saying that the main page usually determines what the other pages are for. But if I don't know the page because it's been deleted, or why was deleted (deletion based on the founder's request is probably not the rule), it's hard to judge. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I've pasted the original content of the root page: [[IMHA Research Archives#Original page]] (i.e., prior to the content being removed and deletion requested) to help understand the context for the sub-pages. In 2018, Saltrabook blanked the page, indicating that the content had been moved elsewhere, and requested page deletion. Marshallsumter then deleted the main page but not the sub-pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::I see, so if those subpages are usefull I would keept them, if not I would delete them. I dont see a point of providing free hosting to sombody, by moving many pages to their user space. The question is if we want to host (i.e. to have in the main ns) lists of links elsewhere. I have no opinion on that. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:11, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

: Let me clarify that while many of the subpages are like the example above, [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Zotero]] is different:
:: &quot;A continuous critical and evidence based learning is a core issue in clinical practice, research, teaching, publication and prevention activities. The Zotero Program is just one of many scientific literature management programs, that should be used for these purposes. Of course one can live without such a database but it helps a lot and can save a lot of time that could be used for more interesting issues. Not only that, but it helps to create better publications and knowledge. Without this program it can be very time consuming to publish a scientific article with the requested style for the references. Further in daily practice when you want to collect and cite a few references for a specific evidence in a clinical colloquium and discussion, this program is excellent. Therefore we strongly recommend that all maritime health persons learn how to use this excellent tool in their daily maritime health practice of all different types. There are good online courses for self-instruction on how to use Zotero. For example this one: Zotero fast online course But in order to increase IMHAR´s collective scientific strength in the use of EBM we would like to give training sessions in every possible opportunity, IMHA Symposia, seminars and other types of meetings. The database is useful for personal purposes but especially also for collaborative aims. At the IMHAR meeting in Paris Oct 7th 2016 we will give an introduction to the program by showing how it can be used in the daily practice and discuss strength and weaknesses compared to other similar databases.&quot;
: Even longer is e.g. [[IMHA Research Archives/Scientific litterature search, storage and use/Medicina Maritima - the Spanish scientific maritime health journal]].
: However, that does not mean these should be salvaged. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:53, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:{{ping|Saltrabook}} I'm wondering if you can respond here to help us decide about whether to delete the IMHA Research Archives sub-pages or perhaps move them to your user space? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:58, 17 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:Diff/2811248]] provides confirmation from Saltrabook to go ahead and delete these archives -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:56, 23 May 2026 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Pragmatics/History]] ==
{{archive top|Deleted. Other related resources have been deleted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:24, 17 May 2026 (UTC)}}
Another KYPark page and subpages with unclear organization scheme. Contains fairly many redlinked items. See also [[User:KYPark/Literature]], perhaps a similar concept. Unlikely to be really useful for others but KYPark. '''Move to user space'''.

As an alternative, moving to [[History of Pragmatics (KYPark)]] would make sense to me: the topic is identified using a natural-language phrase (instead of the relatively unnatural slash) and the responsible editor is indicated so that the reader knows whether to look or not. And for those who oppose the brackets (which I like): [[History of Pragmatics/KYPark]]. Or also: [[KYPark/History of Pragmatics]]. But then, searches in mainspace will see that content and the question is whether that is good. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 15 October 2025 (UTC)

:What about to propose the user to write some guidelines, how other can participate instead of deleting it? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:03, 16 October 2025 (UTC)
:: I plan to move the pages to userspace as I proposed. If someone wants to ask KYPark to address the problems, they should feel free. There will be plenty of time for KYPark to address the problems while the material is in user space. After the problems are addressed, the material can be moved back to mainspace. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:38, 15 November 2025 (UTC)
:So I would '''delete''' it. In the blocked user space its useless. The user cannot improve it and Wikiversity is not free hosting service for personal pages. My believe is, that there should be just a few working pages in the users spaces. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:30, 11 March 2026 (UTC)

'''Move'''. Insufficient statement of learning objective or connection to related learning resources with insufficient current activity to stay in main space. The page was originally [[History of pragmatics]] but was moved by Dave B. Therefore, I suggest moving to [[User:KYPark/History of pragmatics]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:57, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Enhancing Web Browser Security through Cookie Encryption]] ==
{{archive top|'''Kept'''. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:28, 17 May 2026 (UTC)}}
To avoid further conflict with the user who entered this text into Wikiversity, I am opening a RFD request.

I am not sure about how to proceed, although I am inclined to move it out of mainspace = quasi-delete. I am looking forward to get input from others, especially curators and custodians. Some considerations:

1) There is perhaps no more appearance/suspicion of copyright violation, now that the ResearchGate (RG) article (of which this is a copy, perhaps an incomplete copy?) carries a license.

2) The article is not a complete replica from RG: at a minimum, it lacks images. The inserter could have continued editing the page in his user space before he uploads images, that is, before he finalizes the page for consumption, but that did not happen. I did not check whether the text is an exact one-to-one match; the article does not indicate anything in that regard.

3) The principle implied seems to be this: users should feel free to duplicate non-peer-reviewed articles from RG in English Wikiversity, perhaps to increase the Google search and LLM yield. I find this problematic, in part for the duplication. I would say: choose a venue and publish it there. If RG is not good enough for you as a publishing venue, choose Wikiversity instead, but not both?

4) There are some features that appear unduly promotional. There is a link to a dot com home page of the inserter of the article. I dot not know how we handle or should handle this, whether prohibit such a link, etc. This is perhaps not so much a call to quasi-deletion but a call to make it less promotional.

5) I cannot determine the value of such an article. It seems to be a pseudo-article describing someone's browser extension. Can someone do a better analysis?

--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:48, 8 October 2025 (UTC)

:2) Images for Wikicommons are being created, it will take a lot of time. and the text is not an exact one-to-one match
:3) I also mentioned that It was being created so that it is more accessible from mobile phone, which is not possible in RG or in Zenodo
:Let me clarify the purpose of uploading it to different platforms
:Zenodo - registration and to link DOI
:RG - Self Archiving 
:Wikiversity - Accessible by anyone from any device. LLMs may get trained on Wikiversity data or use these data for indexing 
:5) The paper is a result of a research project which involved a browser extension which was built to test the theory.  [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 01:34, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:: I find the practice here of publishing non-identical but similar text (&quot;the text is not an exact one-to-one match&quot;) with almost the same title to be problematic. I cannot imagine this is a recommended practice in academic publishing. At a minimum, somewhere near the top, the page should say something like the following: &quot;This text is based on article ___ published at ___ but is not identical. The author of the differences/changes is ___.&quot; Everything else leads to an undesirable confusion. In academic publishing, the title of an article serves as key part of identification of the artifact.
:: As I said before, I seen nothing particularly academic article-like about the page except for external/superficial signs. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:30, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:::That Article has been published under CC BY SA 4.0
:::And I am one of the author of the article. That gives me right to modify text and publish it under a similar name. However, I will add the disclaimer text that you have suggested. I hope that helps.  [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|&amp;#126;2025-27520-79]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|talk]]) 06:07, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:::: It may give you that right from the ''copyright'' perspective, but perhaps not from ''academic publishing integrity'' perspective. Unfortunately, I do not have any guideline handy; I am merely following my common (or not so common) sense. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:32, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:: I would like to ask: was this article guided by someone from an academic institution, such as a university? Is it reviewed at least in some weak sense? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:39, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:::Yes, This article has been reviewed by two academic professors, their names are also listed as co authors.
:::First, a project guide would help us with selecting a topic and with the document 
:::Second, an Internal examiner would go through our experiment and approve it
:::Finally, External Examiner would examine the documentation and verify it. 
:::We were required by these professors to put their name under contributions [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|&amp;#126;2025-27520-79]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|talk]]) 05:48, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:: Let me explicate the promotional potential of such a page a bit: one can go to the page of the article in Wikiversity --&gt; https://tomjoejames.com/ --&gt; HitMyTarget (a commercial, profit-making entity?) Why would the link be to a commercial web site rather than an academic page, or perhaps a LinkedIn account, which I think the person has? There could also be no link at all; a search for the name would turn out something in Google as well. But providing a direct link would drive users/viewers toward that website much stronger since otherwise the viewer of the page would have to open a new Google search window or the like. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:45, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:::It is evident that the website is not even close to being complete. 
:::I will be creating a separate page under the same domain name specifically for people to contact me.
:::The url would probably be defined as tomjoejames.com/contact-me/
:::I haven't decided yet. But that is my personal website.
:::If the community requires me to remove it, I will. But personally I think people who are from here most likely to click the link to know more about me or to contact me. Either way I think my personal website serves the purpose. 
:::As for the HitMyTarget, it can be traced from any of my links. From my research gate profile, linkedin page or even my own userpage.
:::On the article I did not add any promotional content about myself, I hyperlinked only my own name. I do not know how that is promotional. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|&amp;#126;2025-27520-79]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|talk]]) 06:04, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:::: I am pausing any further responses from me to see whether anyone else has any input. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:30, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:What does it mean &quot;There is perhaps no more appearance/suspicion of copyright violation&quot;? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:57, 16 October 2025 (UTC)
:I have accepted VRT permission per [[ticket:2025100410001149]] FYI. [[User:Matrix|Matrix]] ([[User talk:Matrix|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Matrix|contribs]]) 11:00, 28 October 2025 (UTC)
::Thank you Matrix [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 12:43, 28 October 2025 (UTC)
:I would '''delete''' it. 1) it states its a learning resource. It could not be a learning resource as not rewieved original research. 2) It is not an ongoing research, nor the research was performed on Wikiversity - wv is not a preprint or article database. Maybe it could be moved elsewhere withn Wikimedia domain, but I dont know where. So I would delete it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:56, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::I would '''keep it.''' Like Dan had pointed out,  we do have article-like pages in Wikiversity, and this is not just a random pseudo science article but an article that is a report of an final year project, it has been reviewed by 3 professors whose name has been mentioned at the very beginning.   [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 14:50, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:::I think it is not good to rate pages by appearance. It can be done on other Wikimedia projects, but it cannot be done on Wikiversity, because Wikiversity does not create a static format for presenting information, but is focused on the goal and process. Unfortunately, the goal and process do not have a uniform format. While a target article on Wikipedia or an entry on Wiktionary have some standard target format, Wikiversity does not. That is why I personally rate pages according to the goals and their assessment. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:05, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

Further reading for this nomination: [[S: Wikisource:Proposed_deletions/Archives/2025#Index:Cookie_Encryption.pdf]]; EncycloPetey handled the matter. Let me quote his wisdom on Zenodo (which I lack): &quot;This is tied to a PDF on Commons that was uploaded as &quot;own work&quot; with a CC license and a doi link to Zenodo, with no indication of where this paper was published or if it was published. Zenodo is not a publisher; it is a site for storing research and sharing papers. If Zenodo is the only place this was &quot;published&quot; then it was effectively self-published. --EncycloPetey (talk) 16:14, 15 September 2025 (UTC)&quot;

--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:55, 9 October 2025 (UTC)

:Can you clarify what point are you trying to state? Didn't I already state that the article is published by me? 
:I first created the article in wikisource which I thought would be the perfect place, unfortunately they do not allow self published articles that are not notable. Then I discovered Wikiversity where they allow self published articles. That is why I created the article here. 
:Unlike in wikisource, I did follow guidelines.
:Ever since you deleted the first article, I spent time reading Wikiversity guidelines and I do think that I am following it perfectly.
:I would like to get your suggestions on how should I improve the page,  10 points would be sufficient. 
:Because your goals or intentions are confusing me very much. At first you told me that the article is exactly the same as the preprint in RG and therefore there is no use to it here. And then when I continued to optimize it for Wikiversity, you went ahead and said it is problematic according to recommended academic publishing. 
:Atleast just respond to the points that I have made whether you agree or disagree. So that I clarify and proceed to discuss points that are important and relevant 
:Have you published an research article? If yes, could you send it to me so that I can see the format you have done it [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|&amp;#126;2025-27520-79]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2025-27520-79|talk]]) 10:45, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:: I am giving a chance/time to other curators/custodians to look at the matter and respond to my inputs. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:14, 9 October 2025 (UTC)
:: Incidentally, above I counted 4 questions (or more), 1 request (or more?) and 1 command (or more?). That is a behavior of a commanding entity. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:24, 9 October 2025 (UTC)

I would '''delete it''''. It's more like an academic communication than a learning resource or research.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:32, 26 October 2025 (UTC)
:: In the above post, I do not see any valid rationale for deletion: we do have article-like pages, in Wikijournals and also e.g. in [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Stellar Stefan–Boltzmann constant]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:59, 3 November 2025 (UTC)
:::But I do, see above. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:56, 20 November 2025 (UTC)

:it is a '''student research paper''' forming part of a learning resource on web security and encryption.
:The project was conducted as part of a final-year university course and documented as a practical study on cookie encryption and it has been reviewed by three professors. However, I will be creating a sub page for the article to elaborately describe the experiment that we have conducted and the results we got.    [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 15:57, 26 October 2025 (UTC)
::And why should w host research papers? Wikiversity is not an academic Journal nor repository. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:06, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
:::I do not wish to go through this same argument once again, I've already answered to this question several times in Dan's talk page, Colloquium. you can refer them. I am not hosting the research paper here, I have already hosted the pdf in the ResearchGate, I have published a text version in the wikiversity so that it may be useful for others. Unless you can show me how that article is totally useless, I would like to '''keep''' the article in the wikiversity.    [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 10:13, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
::::And thats the point I am having. Wikiversity is not paper repository. The only way is to publish it via WikiJournal, but they want it for Wikipedia usually. Why wikiversity should be a duplication of ResearchGate, Academia or Zenodo?
::::What I can read on [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?]] policy is, that Wikiversity research &quot;...includes interpreting primary sources, forming ideas, or taking observations.&quot; The article doent look to fall into this. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:43, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::Well, then how come you missed the term &quot;Learning Projects&quot;? As Jtneill had pointed out, this is a legitimate learning project. And also, I do have the VRT permission to host this article on Wikiversity.  [[ticket:2025100410001149]] . besides ResearchGate is an self-archiving platform. the document version in it is not accessibly to screen readers (usually disable people use them), Translators, and also for the mobile readers. therefore I do have valid reasons to publish this article on wikiversity. 
:::::# It is a learning project, therefore according to WIkiversity Policy, It qualifies. 
:::::# I have an explicit VRT permission to host this article on Wikiversity
:::::# Versions that are published in RG, Zenodo are documents, and they are not accessible by screen readers or mobile users. Therefore it is imperative that an article version of this paper exist on here. 
:::::Therefore this article qualifies to stay here on Wikiversity.  [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 11:22, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

'''Keep'''. This is a legitimate student learning project that may be of use to others. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:51, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
{{archive bottom}}

== [[Ninefold Resonance Theory]] ==
{{archive top|{{done}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:31, 28 November 2025 (UTC)}}
This page is rank pseudoscience. Wikiversity seems prone to attracting cranks and charlatans to advertise their pseudoscholarship since they cannot do this kind of promotion on other Wikimedia projects. We have had this discussion before when it came to [[parapsycholoy]] and [[cold fusion]]. Seems the nosense is creeping back in. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 14:19, 1 October 2025 (UTC)

:So what would you suggest? Move to my own namespace? Because I do find it interesting to name this philosophical theory. I think it's important to pursue freedom of ideas, even if supporters of positivist, materialist philosophy disagree. My theory, which relies on idealism, but attempts to provide an explanation, from idealism, for materialistic philosophy, is meant very seriously. I do not see it as a fake, made-up theory on purpose. [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 14:37, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::I think these ideas probably do not have a place at WMF-sponsored websites. You can always set up a private blog or forum discussion. Kids these days speak highly of discord servers. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 15:25, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::What about all those other ideas and theories on Wikiversity that come from original research? Why are those allowed and a metaphysical theory not? Why is {{w|Plato}} allowed to talk about four basic elements (fire, air, water and earth), but I am not allowed to talk about nine (basic) vibrations, while my theory may even be closer to the truth than Plato's theory? I thought Wikiversity was about learning, gaining new ideas, reflecting on them, critiquing them, refining them, and thus arriving at new knowledge? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 15:31, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::Plato is recognized as an academic subject worthy of study. Your original research is not equivalent. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:01, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::: @[[User:ජපස|ජපස]]: Can you clarify which Wikiversity policies you have consulted and thus form the basis of your nomination? (I am not yet making any substantive comment on the nomination itself.) --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:41, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Fringe research]]. Note the principle that research here must be up to standard. This obviously is not it. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 15:55, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::[[Wikiversity:Community Review/Fringe research]] is not a policy, from what I can see. It is a page where two decisions about excluding particular fringe research were made. Which specific passage of a policy (can you quote it) would then lead to deletion of [[Ninefold Resonance Theory]]? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:57, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::It references the relevant policy and sets the precedents I outlined above. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:00, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::: Good; can you now name the relevant policy and identify the relevant passage ideally by quoting the passage or its part? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:05, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::::Do you not see it on the page? [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:06, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::: On the question of what the precedent cases in the domain of philosophy are: I moved to user space this article: [[User:MarsSterlingTurner/Ontology]]. That was utter and overt nonsense, and it was pretty easy to articulate what makes it nonsense (rather than merely ''claiming'' it is nonsense). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:45, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::: The precent cases of [[Parapsychology]] and [[Cold fusion]] are a tad more remote since they deal with ''pseudoscience'' rather than ''pseudophilosophy''. That makes quite a bit of a difference since, to my mind, a lot of what officially counts as philosophy ''is pseudophilosphy'', but I struggle to see that if a Hegelian pops up in the English Wikiversity, I should be able to move his Hegelian articles to user space. That is not to say that no bad philosophy can ever be moved to user space, merely that the detection is quite different from pseudoscience. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:50, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::There is pseudoscience implicitly and explicitly included in this page. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 15:56, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::: I do not see your having providing any substantiation, even a minimal one, of your claims. By contrast, I engaged with the content of the page here: [[Talk:Ninefold Resonance Theory]]. If all that is required is an unproven assessment by a Wikiversity non-contributor that a page is pseudoscience, that opens Wikiversity to a possible disruption. Your nomination is per se not likely to be a disruption, but your failure to substantiate or articulate could create a problematic precedent. But maybe I am being too pedantic or risk-averse; I don't really know. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:02, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::&quot;expressions of deeper, ninefold vibrations&quot; is absolute blatherskite masquerading as a testable claim. It is pratically a textbook pseudoscientific proclamation. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:04, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::: How is it ''pseudoscientific'' when it is put forward as a piece of ''philosophy'', not empirically testable/falsifiable science? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:07, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::::Just because you sweep your claim into a different closet doesn't insulate it from being nonsense in the context of the other closet. If I just say, &quot;my idea is only philosophy, but perpetual motion still does work,&quot; the claim is still pseudoscientific. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:08, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::::: From what I can tell, you have quite a couple of concepts mixed up. Giving up here for now; perhaps someone else will chime in. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:10, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::::::I think I see perhaps where your motivation to be combative in this conversation is coming from and I have initiated a discussion on your user talkpage. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:12, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::I realize that my philosophy could be seen as pseudoscience. But I think, and this is philosophy, that every way of looking at the truth is also based on a philosophy. I personally think that positivist science should not claim to have a monopoly on {{w|matter}}, which I feel it does. If you're talking about how time would work, then it's okay. If you're talking about how God would work, then it's also okay. But if you're talking about how matter would work, then you have to be careful. It feels as if the nature and functioning of matter has been 'hijacked' by a physicalist, materialist, and perhaps even atheistic philosophy. It is true that all elementary particles have been discovered by microcopes, but why should you not be allowed to philosophize about what these particles are and where they come from? Furthermore, I believe that every philosophy is a 'pseudo-philosophy', except for Socrates' philosophy, namely: &quot;The only thing I know is that I know nothing.&quot; We can come up with all kinds of ideas about how the universe works, but we will never fully understand it. But we can try to develop a theory that is as close to the truth as possible. God will not enable man to become God himself. But again, that's my philosophy. [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 16:01, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::That this is passing for &quot;education&quot; is a problem. In the past, I had suggested that Wikiversity ought to be shut down because it didn't have the immune system to deal with pseudoscholarship. I thought there was some positive efforts in that regard, but it appears pseudoscholarship of this sort has crept back in. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:06, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::Do you mean that people should only receive education according to the positivist paradigm of the 21st century? I always say: don't teach people ''what'' to think, but ''how'' to think. By the way, I found the message of ''{{w|The Structure of Scientific Revolutions}}'' very interesting. I believe that science is not a fluid development (i.e., one thing follows another in the form of an addition), but rather a step-by-step change (i.e., an old paradigm gives way to a new paradigm). It could well be that a groundbreaking development will suddenly cause us to view the universe in a completely different way and regard all other ideas as pseudoscience! [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 16:39, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::I mean people should receive education that is up to the highest standards. The page I nominated for deletion is not up to those standards as it contains blatant misrepresentations, falsehoods, pseudoscience, and parochial ideas that have never been properly vetted by scholars. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:47, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::::Could you explain exactly what makes it pseudoscience? Which of the things I speculate and philosophize about do you think are truly impossible? [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 17:15, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::Your first mention of &quot;vibrations&quot; is classic pseudophysics. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 19:00, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::::::By &quot;vibrations&quot;, I mean a kind of oscillation from a higher-dimensional sphere that we cannot observe or measure. I don't know how else to put it or formulate it. [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 19:12, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::::You are free to formulate it any way you want.... but what you are writing right now is classic pseudophysics... especially when it comes to the stuff you cannot observe or measure. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 19:28, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::::::::Why does it seem like such a strange idea that not everything can be observed or measured? Is it possible to observe or measure love? But love is just as real as a table or a chair, isn't it? They are all experiences. Or do you see it differently? [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 19:41, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::::::Please go sealion elsewhere. The point that this resource is pseudoscience has been made clearly and asking questions in response does not address the problem at all. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 12:04, 3 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::::::: 1) I don't think the above conversation is productive. It is perhaps good that it ended. 2) Throwing the word &quot;sealion&quot; around like that is perhaps not a good idea. 3) From what I understand, string theory is currently not empirically testable/falsifiable (hence the label Popperazzi for some of its opponents), so the matter is perhaps not as simple as stating that science only deals with observable/measurable entities. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 12:06, 3 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::::::::String theory does have observable consequences that's the entire reason it exists. On the other hand, this &quot;Ninefold Resonance Theory&quot; is total bollocks. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 13:46, 3 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::I would chip in over ONE sentence: &quot;God will not enable man to become God himself.&quot; 
:::::Just how can you know that? I have heard many people say words like this. Mainly from both sides of  countries at war. Where both armies where blessed. I have no opinion whatsoever about this article, but i strongly oppose to these words put down as a fact. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 21:05, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
: Disclaimer: I am ''not'' saying this should stay in mainspace; moving to user space is quite possibly the appropriate action. What I now have to calmly deliberate on (there is no hurry; and there are other editors around) is whether the arguments I presented at [[Talk:Ninefold Resonance Theory]] suffice for my official support for moving the page to user space as too bad a philosophy. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:45, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
::Perhaps it would be a good idea to create a template called {{tl|Original philosophy}}, alongside {{tl|Original research}}? That new template could state that the article concerns a new philosophy and that it may be viewed as pseudo-philosophy by some people who do not support this philosophy? Then it can remain in the main namespace, but it will be clear that it is a philosophy that is not necessarily based on truth (just like all other philosophies, anyway). [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 17:26, 1 October 2025 (UTC)
:::Trying to pretend that there is a &quot;on the one hand/on the other hand&quot; approach to this is very disingenuous. You have received ''absolutely no notice of this idea'' from anyone of any academic stature. What you are arguing for is basically making Wikiversity a safe haven for &quot;teaching&quot; &quot;stuff I thought up one day&quot;. That can't ''possibly'' be what this website is for. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 17:30, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
:What about to tag it as pseudoscience and keep it. Wikiversity is a free lerning environment and if someone want to learn here how to meditate, why not. What I would propose here to use or create a template for it, which would indicate its a pseudoscience or its an Original research. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:55, 16 October 2025 (UTC)
::Are you serious? Pseudoscience promotion would be an automatic disqualification in a university class. Academic freedom and tenure do not save you from educational malpractice which is what you seem to be advocating that we keep. What if someone wanted to learn why the Earth was flat or how to channel aliens from Arcturus? You think that this is a legitimate usecase of this website? [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 17:14, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
:::@[[User:ජපස|ජපස]] If you could prove any of those points that would make it legit. But, as it comes to religion, who is able to proof what? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:50, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
::::&lt;s&gt;What are you talking about?&lt;/s&gt; This is not WikiReligiousIndoctrination. It's Wikiversity. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 19:09, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
::::Note that I cannot tell whether you are asking ''me'' to prove these ideas or whether you are pointing out the impossibility of proving such things therefore, I guess(?), agreeing with my premise that we should only be working with vetted material in the context of the &quot;-versity&quot; suffix. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 19:12, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::I agree [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:25, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Wikiversity is not an advertising platform, nor an institution. Comparing Wikiversity to academia is not correct. Why do we have articles such as [[W:Geopathology|Geopathology]] or [[W:Ley line|Ley line]] on the English Wikipedia? Isn't it promoting these concepts? Does academia recognize them?
:::We do not understand Wikimedia projects as promotional or academic spaces, but as spaces of free access to information. In the case of Wikipedia, it is all the information that has been published, even the so-called pseudoscientific ones that science denies. It could be similar on Wikiversity. On Wikiversity, which declares itself to be open in terms of how we learn and educate. I understand that it must have its limits, because a normal free society of the Western type also has certain things prohibited for various reasons.
:::On Wikipedia, for articles that are not recognized by science, it is simply written that science does not recognize them and that they are, for example, subjects from the esoteric world. Here on Wikiversity, it could be done the same. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:52, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
: Move to user space because there is no evidence of citation, academic research, or educational objective. This is a personal philosophy. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:45, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Does your proposal mean that Wikiversity is open to its own POVs, and divides sources into namespaces according to where the claim comes from? That is, if it is existing recognized knowledge (even the author doesnt know it), then it can be in the main NS, if it is own POV, then it is moved to the personal NS? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:59, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
:::{{ping|Juandev}} Evidence-based POVs seem reasonable. Or creative work could be fine. But if its presented as science/fact etc. then I think it should be verifiable. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:16, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
I have just moved all my articles with personal views and philosophies to my user space. Could this request be processed? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 02:45, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
: {{done}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:31, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
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== Please restore my templates ==
{{archive top|Unused templates can be created in user space}}
The 61 templates linked below were deleted by {{u|Koavf}}, because they were not used as templates.&lt;br&gt;
I sometimes create content as a template, but then I just link to it (treating it like as short article, that also ''could'' be included, if necessary).
* Tiara pair .../wave: [[Template:Tiara pair Ruby/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Slate/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Onyx/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Opal/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair NonOpal/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair NonRuby/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Jade/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Garnet/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Diamond/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Clay/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Flint/wave|◼]][[Template:Tiara pair Amethyst/wave|◼]]&lt;br&gt;
* Studies of Euler diagrams/... NP table: [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/verona NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/totoro NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/veneto NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tatami NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/subaru NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tabita NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/sakura NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/salomo NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/selene NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/romana NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/sabina NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/ruteve NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/pisano NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/rafisa NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/patina NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/petula NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/pesano NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/padita NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/panama NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/nigiri NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/nitako NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/nisuke NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/neralo NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/nagini NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/naruto NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/mariko NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/milano NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/modena NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/levana NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/lugape NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/kukobo NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/legato NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/kisago NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/karola NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/ketibi NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/kimuri NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/fetugi NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/garuda NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/gepofu NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/fatima NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/dotami NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/dotore NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/domino NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/dosori NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/dobare NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/bamako NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/burito NP table|◼]][[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/dakota NP table|◼]]&lt;br&gt;
I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond. [[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] &lt;small&gt;([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])&lt;/small&gt; 14:57, 7 October 2025 (UTC)

:Unused templates are sometimes deleted as routine general housekeeping. If a template is actually in use, of course it shouldn't be deleted without some more consideration. As an aside, I have no clue how/why you are linking the templates the way you are. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:03, 7 October 2025 (UTC)
:If you have material that is not going to be used in the main namespace anytime soon, you should probably make it in your own userspace, at places like [[User:Watchduck/foo]]. Making templates that you have no particular intention on having in any article is not best practice. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:12, 7 October 2025 (UTC)

::{{reply|Koavf}} On [[Studies of Euler diagrams/clans|this page]] you can see such links (&quot;See table&quot;).
::On your talk page you asked: &lt;span style=&quot;background-color: lightgray; {{Text color default}};&quot;&gt;[...] but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here?&lt;/span&gt;
::Why do you care? Just because they are in the template namespace? I need these tables, and at some point I will want to include some of them somewhere.
::To me this is like images on Commons. They can serve a purpose, even if they are not used in articles.
::Anyway, thanks for restoring. Probably I will just have to create overview pages for templates (currently) not used as templates. (May be nice to have anyway.) --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] &lt;small&gt;([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])&lt;/small&gt; 15:37, 7 October 2025 (UTC)
:::&quot;Why do you care? Just because they are in the template namespace? I need these tables, and at some point I will want to include some of them somewhere.&quot;
:::Yes, exactly. Just make [[User:Watchduck/Template:foo]] and then move it to Template:foo once it's needed in the main namespace. This is why there are different namespaces. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:45, 7 October 2025 (UTC)
::: I agree with Koavf/Justin above: if you do not need the template yet, why not place it to your user space? User space seems extremely unregulated, from what I have seen; you can do a wide variety of things there, bar copyright violation, inciting violence, etc. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:24, 8 October 2025 (UTC)
::::That would be one way. Another way is to just use the templates on a page (which may be in user space). --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] &lt;small&gt;([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])&lt;/small&gt; 11:25, 8 October 2025 (UTC)
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== [[U3254978]] ==
{{archive top|This could've easily been '''speedy deleted'''. Use the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{delete}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template next time. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:46, 18 November 2025 (UTC)}}
Only one letter and nonsense. This page has no meaningful content, nor a meaningful page, thus '''delete''' as nonsense page.

The page at [[U3254978]] has only one letter? [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2025-29645-98|&amp;#126;2025-29645-98]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2025-29645-98|talk]]) 20:16, 21 October 2025 (UTC)

:{{done}} —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:43, 25 October 2025 (UTC)
::This page was already speedily deleted because it contains only one letter. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2025-29978-26|&amp;#126;2025-29978-26]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2025-29978-26|talk]]) 02:51, 25 October 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Science talks]] ==
{{archive top|'''Done''' as author request. No reason for this discussion to be opened any longer. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:40, 18 November 2025 (UTC)}}
This is useless (learning outcomes are scarce) and has been so since 2007 (author: [[User:Juandev]]). '''Move to user space''' (or delete if the author prefers so). I would use proposed deletion but since I expect resistance, I go for RFD. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:13, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

The page serves no purpose, it probably won't develop, so I would delete it.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:03, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

:{{done}} as author request. No reason for this discussion to be opened any longer. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:39, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Wikiversity:Ignore all rules]] ==
{{archive top|{{not done}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:19, 2 December 2025 (UTC)}}
I propose to delete this since the exhortation &quot;ignore all rules&quot; is nonsense. People who ignore all rules, even if they do so in good faith that they are improving the project, usually get into trouble. It is fundamentally dishonest/Orwellian to first encourage people to ignore all rules and then punish them for doing so. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:30, 26 March 2025 (UTC)

:It's a rejected proposal. Why do we need to delete it? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:12, 26 March 2025 (UTC)
:: Since although it was rejected as a policy at [[Wikiversity talk:Ignore all rules]] in 2006, I saw some discussion somewhere (in some Wikipedia?) that it should not be a policy but nonetheless be somehow important. On the linked talk page, one comment says: &quot;One of the most important pages, but wasn't designed to be policy (it's neither policy nor guideline on Wikipedia, but it's listed as an important page).&quot; A page that is deleted is a page that one cannot use/refer to as a quasi-policy, as happens e.g. to [[Wikipedia: WP:BLUDGEON]]. I support keeping the talk page, especially as track record of the past vote. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:27, 26 March 2025 (UTC)
:::{{vote delete}} [[User:Fourmidable|Fourmidable]] ([[User talk:Fourmidable|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fourmidable|contribs]]) 15:14, 20 May 2025 (UTC)
: I boldly went ahead and '''moved the page''' to [[User:JWSchmidt/Wikiversity:Ignore all rules]], although what we have here is more of a proto-consensus that a real consensus given the low participation. It is more of an unopposed proposal than a properly supported proposal. Let us see whether opposition to this manner of closure develops. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:09, 29 July 2025 (UTC)
:: I've moved this rejected policy back to the Wikiversity name space where all other rejected policies are located. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:58, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:'''Keep in ns Wikiversity.''' We keep all rejected proposals, so lets keep also this one. Doesnt matter if we see a sence on it. One my think its nonsense, the other may think its otherwise. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:33, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
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== What to do with remaining Marshall Sumter pages ==
{{archive top|{{done}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:12, 2 December 2025 (UTC)}}
I created [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#What to do with remaining Marshall Sumter pages]] in Colloquium, especially since its concerns fairly many pages. But since it deals with quasi-deletion (by moving to user space), I am also posting a notification here (for case that someone is only monitoring requests for deletion, as unlikely as it seems). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:36, 22 September 2025 (UTC)
: I soft-redirected half of the dozen or so remaining main space pages created by Marshallsumter to Wikipedia and the other half seem suitable for main space. So, I think this is resolved. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:01, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Modern Chinese Proverbs and Sayings by Hé Xiǎojū / Kenny Ho]] ==
{{archive top|{{done}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:08, 2 December 2025 (UTC)}}
(I go to RfD instead of ''proposed deletion'' since I expect opposition.)

Too little to learn from here, IMHO. The page mainly links to pages outside of Wikiversity written by the creater of the Wikiversity page. I find the title misleading as well; the page contains Chinese phrases coined by the page author and these cannot be properly called ''proverbs'' until the language users at large recognizes them as such. The material seems to fail to go beyond what would be a self-promotion (caveat: most content can be interpreted as self-promotion; one has to differentiate).

Moving to user space instead of outright deletion is fine by me. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:13, 1 August 2025 (UTC)

:Thank you for the feedback and the opportunity to clarify.
:My intention with Modern Chinese Proverbs and Sayings by Hé Xiǎojū / Kenny Ho is not self-promotion but to document a long-term cultural and linguistic project in creating modern proverbs, so that they may be studied, critiqued, and preserved in a structured way. Wikiversity’s scope of allowing original research and educational resources seemed appropriate, as the project can serve as a reference point for language learners, cultural studies, and comparative literature.
:That said, I understand the concerns expressed. In the interest of avoiding conflict and respecting the community’s guidelines, I am comfortable with the page being moved into user space rather than being deleted outright. This way, the material remains available for anyone who wishes to study it, while addressing the concern of it not yet fitting mainspace standards.
:If the page is moved, I would be grateful if you could kindly point me to the new user-space link, so I may continue maintaining it properly.
:Thank you for your consideration.
:Ho Siew Khui [[User:KennyHoProverbs|KennyHoProverbs]] ([[User talk:KennyHoProverbs|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/KennyHoProverbs|contribs]]) 03:41, 19 September 2025 (UTC)
::Explained this way, I would keep the page and I would kindly ask @[[User:KennyHoProverbs|KennyHoProverbs]] if they can add some [[Help:Project boxes|Project boxes]] to indicate other users how to deal with the content. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 19:44, 16 October 2025 (UTC)
:::Thank you, Juandev, for the kind suggestion. I’ll go ahead and add the project boxes as you proposed. Much appreciated. [[User:KennyHoProverbs|KennyHoProverbs]] ([[User talk:KennyHoProverbs|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/KennyHoProverbs|contribs]]) 04:18, 17 October 2025 (UTC)
::::I’ve now implemented the project boxes as Juandev suggested. Thank you again for the helpful pointer.
::::I also appreciate the ongoing guidance from the community as I continue learning the ropes here. [[User:KennyHoProverbs|KennyHoProverbs]] ([[User talk:KennyHoProverbs|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/KennyHoProverbs|contribs]]) 04:46, 17 October 2025 (UTC)
----
@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]], [[User:KennyHoProverbs|KennyHoProverbs]], [[User:Juandev|Juandev]]: I`m sorry I don`t know whether the request was closed or not. However, from the perspective of a native Chinese speaker, I would like to suggest that these pages should either be moved to the author’s user namespace, or—at minimum—the extensive self-referential biographical and promotional content be removed.

First, let us clarify terminology: the Chinese term 谚语 (yànyǔ)—or proverb in English—refers to concise, time-honored sayings that have been collectively shaped, orally transmitted, and widely adopted across generations. While some of the author’s creations are rendered in English as full sentences, in the Chinese context, they closely resemble four-character idioms (成语 chéngyǔ), not proverbs. Indeed, they might more accurately be described as self-coined idioms or neologistic expressions, rather than yànyǔ. The current title, therefore, is somewhat misleading.

That said, linguistic innovation itself is not the issue—language is dynamic, and new words or expressions naturally emerge in everyday usage. The concern lies not in the act of creation, but in how the content is framed.

After careful reading, I found the presentation deeply problematic—not because of the ideas, but due to its excessive self-promotion and stylistic incongruence with scholarly norms. For instance:

*The text reads more like AI-generated promotional copy ([[%3D_A_Brilliant_Strategy_That_Solves_a_Difficult_Problem_(📜_解难妙计_jiě_nàn_miào_jì)_%3D|e.g.]] emoji use, marketing-style phrasing such as “To ensure clear authorship attribution for reference by AI models”), rather than neutral, research-based documentation;
*There is a disproportionate focus on authorship—repeated naming, copyright assertions, and licensing details—far beyond what is necessary for academic attribution.

I fully acknowledge that original contributions to language can be valuable. But research should center on the phenomenon, not the person. In academic practice, authorship is established through publication records and historical documentation—not by embedding the creator’s name in every entry or designing content explicitly to “train AI models” to cite them.

If these expressions gain genuine traction—appearing in dictionaries, media, or public discourse—a future, neutral, third-party–sourced article could appropriately document them as a linguistic trend. Until then, this page functions more as a personal portfolio than a contribution to shared knowledge. [[User:ChasingAir|ChasingAir]] ([[User talk:ChasingAir|留言]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChasingAir|贡献]]) 11:19, 10 November 2025 (UTC)
: This is a well-thought-out, well-formulated and compelling presentation, if I may say so!
: To highlight one of the points: in [[Old shadows disturb the heart]], it say &quot;About the Author:&lt;br/&gt;Ho Siew Khui 何小驹 (Hé Xiǎojū) is a writer and creator of modern phrases, with a passion for the beauty, nuance, and elegance of Chinese language, culture, and tradition. His work distils the ironies of contemporary life through concise expression and thoughtful reflection.&quot; I find it self-promotional and inappropriate. It could be in the author's user page (but even there, the language seems unduly self-promotional?), but not in the created pages. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:27, 10 November 2025 (UTC)
::: Thank you, Dan, and to all who have contributed to this discussion.
::: I appreciate the time and thought given to reviewing my contributions. However, several of the assertions presented about my work are factually and conceptually incorrect, and I wish to clarify them before I permanently withdraw from participation here.
::: 
::: '''1. Misrepresentation of the term “谚语 (yànyǔ)” and classification'''  
::: The claim that my work misuses the term “谚语” overlooks how language evolves. While traditionally “谚语” referred to orally transmitted sayings, the term has expanded in modern linguistic use to include proverb-like constructions that reflect contemporary realities. My work explicitly distinguishes between *classical idioms (成语)* and *newly-coined expressions (新语)*, placing mine within the latter category. The label “modern proverbs” is therefore accurate and not misleading.
::: 
::: '''2. Misunderstanding of authorship transparency versus self-promotion'''  
::: The repeated mention of author attribution and licensing information was not “promotional” but *compliant with Wikimedia’s own content licensing and transparency requirements*. Each proverb was released under a CC-BY-4.0 licence to ensure open reuse with clear provenance. Calling this “self-promotion” confuses transparency with vanity. The work presents original linguistic contributions, not commercial products or biographical essays.
::: 
::: '''3. Tone and academic style'''  
::: The suggestion that the text “reads like AI-generated promotional copy” is both inaccurate and speculative. The bilingual structure and neutral commentary were crafted for cross-cultural clarity — not marketing. Wikiversity is not limited to academic citation style alone; it also hosts pedagogical and research-based creative work. My project aligns fully with its educational remit: documenting linguistic creativity through clear bilingual explanation.
::: 
::: '''4. Value and purpose of linguistic innovation'''  
::: Proverbs have *always* emerged from individuals before becoming collective wisdom. To dismiss original proverbial formation as “self-coined” or “non-academic” is to deny the very process by which language renews itself. Every idiom in history began as one person’s expression. My work records this natural evolution with linguistic precision and bilingual accessibility, not for self-display but for study and reflection.
::: 
::: '''5. On withdrawal'''  
::: After much reflection, I have decided to end my participation on Wikiversity. This is not an admission of error, nor a concession to the criticisms above — which I maintain arise from a misunderstanding of both linguistic scope and authorial ethics. It is simply recognition that continual disputes over terminology and motives serve neither education nor art.
::: 
::: I leave the community free to delete my contributions if it so chooses. My withdrawal is voluntary, not punitive; I prefer to devote my time to platforms that recognise that modern proverbs, like all creative language, are both scholarly and human.
::: 
::: Thank you to those who engaged in good faith. I trust this closes the matter.  
::: —[[User:KennyHoProverbs|KennyHoProverbs]] ([[User talk:KennyHoProverbs|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/KennyHoProverbs|contribs]]) 06:08, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
:::: As long as user space is non-indexed by Google, I think it preferable to move the material to your user space rather than delete it. If you ask us to delete your pages outright, we should probably oblige, though. Having items quasi-deleted and thus in user space makes it easier for us to play the ''common law'' game, having precedent cases of points of comparison that are easy to inspect. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:26, 11 November 2025 (UTC)
I think this page and its sub-pages should be moved out of main space and into user space because:
* This is an archive of personal, creative writing rather than a topic with educational or research goals
* The content is predominantly non-English
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:18, 21 November 2025 (UTC)

:Dear Jtneill,
:Thank you for reviewing the page and for sharing your thoughts.
:I appreciate the suggestion to move the material into User Space. However I prefer that all of my contributions related to this project be fully deleted rather than moved.
:I am no longer continuing this line of work on Wikiversity and a clean removal would help avoid any future misunderstandings about scope or intention. I have already migrated the material to external platforms that are more suitable for this type of content.
:Therefore may I kindly request that the page and its sub-pages be deleted in full.
:Thank you again for your time and consideration.
:Warm regards  
:Ho Siew Khui [[User:KennyHoProverbs|KennyHoProverbs]] ([[User talk:KennyHoProverbs|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/KennyHoProverbs|contribs]]) 10:04, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
::{{ping|KennyHoProverbs}} Thanks for letting us know. The main space pages and redirects you created have been deleted. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:08, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
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==[[Cosmic Influx Theory]]==
{{archive top|'''Moved to userspace''' where the page will no longer be indexed on Google nor will it be regarded as acceptable for Wikiversity mainspace. Rationale is that the &quot;theory&quot; is mainly supported via ChatGPT prompts and the author's own findings, and many of the claims are not supported by mainstream physics. Additionally, redirects have been deleted. Since this page serves no educational purpose, there is no reason for redirects to take place of the original content. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:07, 4 January 2026 (UTC)}}
More pseudoscience masquerading as &quot;original research&quot;. This is ''embarrassing''. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 13:45, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
: This is quite possible but unless you provide at least a modicum of substantiation, I do not see how this can get deleted or rather moved to user space. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 14:36, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
::I'm curious as to how pseudoscience meets [[Wikiversity:Learning|Wikiversity's learning objectives]]. What is the learning objective in someone's own ideas which are not scientifically credible? For example, &quot;CIT introduces the concept of a ''universal energy influx'', hypothesized as a stream of neutrino-like particles interacting with atomic nuclei, driving incremental mass increases in alignment with the Lorentz Transformation of Mass-Energy&quot; - is this something that can be scientifically supported? (though admittedly I'm not well-versed in physics).
::I would propose moving this to userspace as opposed to deletion, but I agree with the original proposer that having content like this hurts our image rather than bolsters it. Perhaps we may need to create a guideline regarding pseudoscience vs. original research and what is allowed in the mainspace. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:46, 12 November 2025 (UTC)
:::There was such a thing. [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Fringe research]]. It looks like y'all lost institutional memory about the last time pseudoscientists infiltrated this wiki. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 01:38, 13 November 2025 (UTC)
::::Assuming that I have &quot;forgotten&quot; about a discussion that I never participated in nor was even remotely related to is an erroneous assumption. Despite the inappropriate comment, I have added it to my watchlist for future reviewing. My stance is that the page in queston should be removed from the mainspace, but I will allow discourse to take place (including Ruud's defense of the page) before a final decision is set. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:46, 13 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::My apologies: I intended on making no judgement ''against'' you ''personally'' in spite of the implied collective second person. The lack of institutional knowledge about what came before about this is my ''general'' complaint with what is going on here. I wish you nothing but the best in reviving a commitment for Wikiversity to not promote pseudoscience. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 16:03, 13 November 2025 (UTC)
::What are you talking about &quot;modicum of substantiation&quot;? Do you think this is not pseudoscience? [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 01:31, 13 November 2025 (UTC)

'''Response from Ruud Loeffen (author of the resource)'''
This page is clearly identified as original research and is presented as a learning resource, not as established science. Its purpose is to document the development of a theoretical framework in a transparent way, allowing readers to study, critique, and evaluate its reasoning. '''Chapter 8 provides extensive references''' to the scientific literature and external sources used throughout the work, ensuring traceability and openness.

The resource has been publicly accessible for many months and has been viewed by '''many researchers and interested readers'''. During this period, '''no formal objections or disputes''' have been raised about its presence or purpose. This suggests that the page has not caused disruption and has served as a stable educational resource.

Wikiversity’s research guidelines explicitly support original research when it serves clear educational goals. This resource meets that expectation by enabling inquiry, comparison, and critical examination.

For these reasons, I respectfully request that the page be '''kept in mainspace''' as an example of documented, transparent original research intended for learning.
[[User:Ruud Loeffen|Ruud Loeffen]] ([[User talk:Ruud Loeffen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ruud Loeffen|contribs]]) 01:03, 13 November 2025 (UTC)

:I am sorry, but this entire &quot;original research&quot; is nothing but utter nonsense. It belongs in your own private blog, not hosted at this website. It is so ridiculous as to be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_even_wrong ''not even wrong'']. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 01:34, 13 November 2025 (UTC)
:There is no &quot;educational goal&quot; to be found in this any more than there would be an educational goal if someone had written a treatise about their fantasies or superstitions. What are we doing here? [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 01:35, 13 November 2025 (UTC)

'''Move''' to user space. Highly speculative theory. Based on a single author's perspective. Relies on self-citation. Not based on evidence. Lacks [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|verifiability]] and research. No peer-review. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:26, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

:Thank you for your comment, Jtneill. I appreciate your clear explanation of the concerns about original research in mainspace. I understand the points you raise, and I am following the discussion carefully. At this stage, I am awaiting the community’s consensus and will respect whichever outcome is considered most appropriate.
:My main goal is simply to preserve the material in an accessible and educational form, whether in mainspace or another suitable location. If changes become necessary, I am fully willing to cooperate and help ensure continuity for readers.
:Thank you for contributing to the discussion. [[User:Ruud Loeffen|Ruud Loeffen]] ([[User talk:Ruud Loeffen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ruud Loeffen|contribs]]) 05:31, 23 November 2025 (UTC)
:Thank you for your comment. I understand the concern about speculative work and the preference to host such materials in user space.
:If the consensus is to move the Cosmic Influx Theory pages to my userspace, I have no objection. In that case '''redirects would be useful so that existing external references continue to lead readers to the correct pages.'''
:The Cosmic Influx Theory has been referenced in articles, videos, and academic discussion threads, so preserving link continuity would help avoid reader confusion.
:For context, the CIT chapters on Wikiversity have accumulated over '''20,510 page views''' in total. The material is also referenced externally in several public posts, articles, and the ''Influx Song'' video (which has received more than 100,150 views), where readers follow links back to Wikiversity for educational comparison.
:I appreciate the time and consideration of the community.
:— '''Ruud Loeffen'''&lt;nowiki&gt; ~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:Ruud Loeffen|Ruud Loeffen]] ([[User talk:Ruud Loeffen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ruud Loeffen|contribs]]) 08:40, 23 November 2025 (UTC)
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==[[AI-Assisted Evaluation of Cosmological Theories]]==
{{archive top|'''Moved to userspace''', pseudoscience; see rationale below. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:11, 4 January 2026 (UTC)}}
{{Collapse box|1=Sub-pages|2=
{{Special:Prefixindex/AI-Assisted Evaluation of Cosmological Theories}}
}}
Related to the above, but worse. What are y'all doing here? You are hosting absolute nonsense that is basically frontloading a chatbot's hallucinations about cosmology. This is the kind of thing that would get most people ''kicked out'' of a university for promoting. [[User:ජපස|ජපස]] ([[User talk:ජපස|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ජපස|contribs]]) 01:43, 13 November 2025 (UTC)

:+ [[Unified Field Continuity]]. A final decision will be made in a week or two's time if no objections are placed since these articles violate Wikiversity policies regarding [[WV:Original research|original research]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:42, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
:: Which parts of the policies do they violate? (I am not saying this material should be kept.) --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:36, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I made a proposal [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#General ban on direct use of GenAI output with exceptions]] that has not yet gained sufficient support. However, that proposal would not lead to removal of this set of pages since it acknowledges that it is &quot;AI-Assisted&quot;. There are many other GenAI-produced pages in the mainspace that have been left unchallenged for months or years now. A recent example is [[Deductive Logic/Categorical Sentence Schemata/Example Modus Bocardo (OAO-3) syllogisms]], generated by GenAI per introductory foot note; this one would be deleted/moved to user space per my proposal since GenAI does not seem to be part of the topic being examined. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:42, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I propose you usually file separate RFDs for items: it greatly simplifies analysis and comment. Anyway, [[Unified Field Continuity]] would be quasi-deleted (moved to user space) per my proposal [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#General ban on direct use of GenAI output with exceptions]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:54, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
:::Same reasoning as above. Pseudoscience that does not meet the [[WV:original research|original research]] guidelines and provides no educational/research benefit to the readers. There's no tag indicating it as original research, it is masquerading itself as established science, and fails to adhere to research ethics. It should be moved to userspace, and only deleted (imo) if it crosses the line to promotional/offensive. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:40, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
:It would be an interesting theoretical research, but I am afraid that it is poorly conceived. Today it is known that AI hallucinates a lot, so it is not certain that the studies sought actually exist. This means that the hypotheses and theories created from these studies may be literally useless.
:I could imagine some format for developing new theories and hypotheses through LLM (ChatGPT 5 is good at hypothesizing), but the main part of the work, i.e. adding known things or verifying the correctness of the robotic reasoning, would have to be done by a human. Moreover, it would probably be conceived differently, with different goals and a clear indication of what it is about.
:So I am not surprised that my colleagues do not trust such a project and would like to delete it. This leads me to the thought that if the community decided to allow AI, it would perhaps be useful to create a namespace for it that would serve as a quarantine - i.e. so that texts and ideas created by AI do not mix with those created by humans.
:So I would keep these pages, provided that they are revised to ensure a minimum of hallucinated sources (i.e. completely non-existent sources, or poorly named and explained). [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:42, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::Thank you, Juandev, for your constructive and well-reasoned feedback. I fully agree that any AI-assisted work must avoid hallucinated sources, and I appreciate your emphasis on that point. In developing the AI-Assisted Evaluation pages, I took deliberate steps to ensure accuracy: every theory included in the evaluation list is a real proposal created by a real author. Each entry is based on reading the author’s own publications, and in many cases supported through direct email correspondence with the researcher to verify correctness and intent.
::The goal of the project is not to generate new theories through AI, but to explore whether a transparent and structured evaluation framework can help compare existing, real cosmological proposals in an educational context. I am fully willing to revise any sections that may require clearer sourcing or additional citations.
::If the community prefers an AI-designated namespace or another structural solution, I would also welcome that, as long as it maintains accessibility for readers who wish to explore or compare alternative theories.
::Thank you again for helping to guide the discussion in a constructive direction.
::[[User:Ruud Loeffen|Ruud Loeffen]] ([[User talk:Ruud Loeffen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ruud Loeffen|contribs]]) 05:08, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
:  '''Move''' to user page. Original research that lacks peer review. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:31, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
::Thank you for your comment, Jtneill. I appreciate your clear explanation of the concerns about original research in mainspace. I understand the points you raise, and I am following the discussion carefully. At this stage, I am awaiting the community’s consensus and will respect whichever outcome is considered most appropriate.
::My main goal is to preserve the material in an accessible and educational form, whether in mainspace or another suitable location. If changes become necessary, I am fully willing to cooperate and help ensure continuity for readers.
::Thank you for contributing to the discussion. [[User:Ruud Loeffen|Ruud Loeffen]] ([[User talk:Ruud Loeffen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ruud Loeffen|contribs]]) 05:32, 23 November 2025 (UTC)
&lt;hr&gt;
[[#Unified Field Continuity]] should be discussed separately -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt;
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==[[Unified Field Continuity]]==
{{archive top|'''Moved to userspace''', pseudoscience; see rationale below. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:12, 4 January 2026 (UTC)}}
'''Move''' to user sub-page. Insufficient citation or peer review. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:16, 22 November 2025 (UTC) 

:&quot;Same reasoning as above. Pseudoscience that does not meet the original research guidelines and provides no educational/research benefit to the readers. There's no tag indicating it as original research, it is masquerading itself as established science, and fails to adhere to research ethics. It should be moved to userspace, and only deleted (imo) if it crosses the line to promotional/offensive.&quot; My comment from above for this page. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:28, 23 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''' or, as a second best option, '''delete''': not marked as original research, has signs of being in part GenAI-slop, etc. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:31, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
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== [[:Category:Ideas of S. Perquin]] ==
{{archive top|{{done}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:17, 2 December 2025 (UTC)}}
These pages are more suitable for userspace/blog and not suitable for Wikiversity mainspace, as they fail to meet the objectives for learning and interactive education. For example, [[Simulacrumism]] is not something anyone can actually learn from since it's just an unscientific idea that can't be replicated. Besides, &quot;S. Perquin&quot; is not a notable figure whose philosophy can be derived and studied from. Possibly a move to userspace would work. Thoughts? Pinging the author {{ping|S. Perquin}} for consultation as well. Thanks! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:57, 13 November 2025 (UTC)

:If it is not allowed to be in the main namespace (which I would find disappointing), then it can of course be moved to my own namespace! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 18:15, 13 November 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] Is it a research or educational resource? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:28, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
:::The purpose of my writings is to inspire and motivate people to come up with their own ideas and theories. My hope is that some people will read this and think: I agree/disagree with this, and I am going to expand or enrich the theory myself. This leads us to new ideas that are even better than before. And based on the theories of others, even better theories will follow. That is how knowledge is created, in my belief. Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 08:10, 21 November 2025 (UTC)

: '''Move''' to user sub-pages. Collections of personal ideas/essays belong in user space. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:24, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
I have just moved all my articles with personal views and philosophies to my user space. This category can be deleted. Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 02:46, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Simulation hypothesis (Planck)]] &amp; other similar pages by [[User:Platos Cave (physics)]] ==
{{archive top|'''moved to userspace''' no peer-review/pseudoscientific (see comments below) and borderline promotional content. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:17, 14 January 2026 (UTC)}}
It seems that a lot of these pages made by Platos Cave should be in this user's userspace and not in the mainspace:
* Firstly, the articles are not tagged with the original research template like they should be. 
* Secondly, the author potrays their research (centered around the &quot;Programmer God hypothesis&quot;) as factual, scientific literature when it is simply just the researcher's own theories that have no scientific backing, and the only backing is their own personal website.
* Thirdly, most of these &quot;articles&quot; are a way for this user to promote their website and they've recevied a warning regarding this [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Platos_Cave_(physics)#No_Solicitation by Dave in August 2019]. The reference for the &quot;Programmer God hypothesis&quot; is his own website. There are no scientific publications, afaik, that support this hypothesis.

I also understand that Wikiversity can be subjective in what it perceives as &quot;learning&quot;, so I'd rather see these pages in the user's userspace rather than being outright deleted. Additionally, a lot of other pages, such as [[Quantum gravity (Planck)]], are problematic. For example, the reference for &quot;The orbits generated by this dimensionless geometrical approach can be formulated, and despite not using Newtonian physics these formulas demonstrate consistency; for example the derived formulas for radius R, period T and (M + m) will reduce Kepler's formula to G&quot; is just a page from his own website which seems to be misleading anyhow (https://codingthecosmos.com/orbitals/maple-code-Kepler.html). 

See for reference: [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Fringe research]].

Thoughts? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:00, 15 November 2025 (UTC)

:1. where is the original research template, to this I have no objection.
:2. 
:&gt;here are no scientific publications, afaik, that support this hypothesis.
:I invite you to start here
:https://link.springer.com/article/10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x
:You may continue here (these article are built around the main article and are works in progress). I recommend in this order.
:doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3333513
:doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3334282
:doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3444571
:doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3703266
:3. Pls do me the courtesy of notifying me before you delete the sites so that I may copy [[User:Platos Cave (physics)|Platos Cave (physics)]] ([[User talk:Platos Cave (physics)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Platos Cave (physics)|contribs]]) 00:51, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
::Hi Platos Cave, thank you for your discussion. First off, the original research template is [[template:Original research|here]], though I'm afraid your articles don't align with [[Wikiversity:Original research|our original research policies]]. Secondly, I reviewed the first article and there are a number of issues with it, the most glaring issue [to me] would be this statement in the paper: &quot;The simulation hypothesis posits a mathematical universe that is in some sense programmed, thus implying an Intelligence (the Programmer).&quot;. Again, no scientific literature has postulated a &quot;Programmer God hypothesis&quot;, which is what my main statement about a lack of publications was referring to. When I search up anything related to &quot;the Programmer&quot;, I get sources from your website and not from a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Lastly, a lot of the references in that paper are problematic, including a reference ''for your own paper'' (https://vixra.org/pdf/1102.0032v9.pdf). Criticism for the rest of the articles are as follows:
::#'''A Simulation Hypothesis; Planck unit scaffolding correlates with the Cosmic Microwave Background''' - self-published, not peer reviewed; no claims to support: &quot;The Spiral of Theodorus is used as the ‘rule’ set for measuring the universe expansion&quot;; References are problematic.
::#'''A Simulation Hypothesis, relativity as the mathematics of perspective in a hyper-sphere universe''' - all references are from your own works.
::#'''A Simulation Hypothesis, gravitational orbits emerge from n-body rotating particle-particle orbital pairs''' - same problem as above. In addition, no claims to support: &quot;mass is not a constant property… mass is the frequency of occurrence of Planck mass units.&quot;.
::#'''A Simulation Hypothesis, Emergent Quantization from Geometric Dynamics: The Two-Photon Transition Model''' - references for the &quot;Programmer God&quot; hypothesis are once again self-references to earlier papers that are available only on your own personal website.
::Therefore, it's evident that these pages fall under fringe work and do not adhere to the scientific method. And as for your comment on #3, I am ok with moving these pages into your userspace as whatever goes on in your userspace (as long as it's obviously not defamatory or grossly problematic) is your business, but I believe these pages are unfit for Wikiversity mainspace as it is [[W:pseudoscience|psuedoscience]]. Others are welcomed to join in of course, thanks! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 01:52, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
:::1. All references are mine so we can both agree that is it original research ... noone else has considered this problem might have a solution ... so it is fringe research under this definition
:::2. Your AI review of the above 4 articles mention that the references are mine (see #1) ... and that some claims are not supported ... unfortunately this defines original research ... perhaps you can query AI for mathematical errors that would render the model without merit (this would clarify whether it is psuedoscience)
:::3. The 4 listed articles are an attempt to build a framework around the peer reviewed article (see European Physics Journal link https://link.springer.com/article/10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x). Perhaps your AI tool can review that too. Unfortunately original research sometimes takes time and all articles should eventually form 1 complete model. You can ask AI how successful I am so far from a review of ALL the 5 articles taken together.
:::4. There is the ancestor simulation but to my knowledge no category for the simulation created externally. Hence the title for it is correct by defintion (if the universe was programmed externally then the Programmer is the universe creator).
:::5. As this covers several wiki pages and these articles etc, I need a website to link everything together into a complete form. Using a website to do that is a standard practice as I understand
:::6. If the jury concludes to move me to the user page, then at least that would save the work (and history) from your deletion. [[User:Platos Cave (physics)|Platos Cave (physics)]] ([[User talk:Platos Cave (physics)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Platos Cave (physics)|contribs]]) 02:36, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
::::Thanks for your response Platos Cave. I'm not sure why you keep referring my &quot;AI tool&quot;. The text that I responded you with was not generated with AI (even though I can understand why you would assume that), and I actually took the time to download each article you linked and it did not take me very long to find the issues that I found. Secondly, your work does not fit Wikiversity's original research guidelines as it does not fit [[Wikiversity:Research ethics]], thus your work may be more suitable for your userspace rather than the mainspace. Lastly, your website has been used as a reference to justify your claims, such as &quot;these MLTA objects may combine with each other Lego style, this can be represented by assigning to each attribute a unit number θ (i.e.: θ = 15 ⇔ kg). This unit number dictates the relationship between the objects&quot; with the reference being your personal website. This does not seem like &quot;linking everything together to a complete form&quot;. 
::::And once again, I don't have an issue with the pages being in your userspace. That's what I'm advocating for. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:53, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
:::::Do you mind if I continue this debate as it still seems to me you have judged the work on 1 claim that is non standard physics and now you mention a mathematical reference ... by assigning to each attribute a unit number θ (i.e.: θ = 15 ⇔ kg). This unit number dictates the relationship between the objects, with the reference being your personal website. May I note that these problematic queries were peer reviewed and published by the European Physics Journal ... see link ... you can take up your arguments with them,  ... if you can find any mathematical errors in the other papers then I would be very happy to discuss them with you and make corrections if possible. Constructive criticism is always appreciated. [[User:Platos Cave (physics)|Platos Cave (physics)]] ([[User talk:Platos Cave (physics)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Platos Cave (physics)|contribs]]) 03:57, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
::::::Platos Cave, I'm not interested in debating your works on whether it meets scientific validity, but if it is in accordance to Wikiversity's policies on [[WV:original research|original research]], and which content can remain on the WV mainspace. My issue is that a lot of the works revolve around a theory that you've created, which isn't supported my mainstream science and the only scientific backings for this theory are your own works &amp; websites. It seems more promotional than educational, hence my desire to move this out of the mainspace. It may even be up for deletion per Dan's point about the Amazon link, I'm afraid. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:55, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
: (I plan to take Sunday off for the most part and to post here on Monday. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:45, 16 November 2025 (UTC))
: Well, since I am quite active today because of other matter: '''Move to userspace''' for all the pages by [[User:Platos Cave (physics)]] as having an unduly tight relation to commercial/financial profit by the author, via prominent links to codingthecosmos.com, a commercial website. It is quite possibly also pseudo-physics or pseudo-philosophy. The simulation hypothesis is examined in serious academic philosophy, e.g. by Nick Bostrom, I think, but that alone does not establish that the material in these pages is scientific or academically sound. If I paid enough attention to the text, I could perhaps confirm the pseudo-scientific character despite my not being a university-trained physicist (I am a university-trained computer scientist, which includes a lot of logic but not physics). But as long as we have the for-financial-profit-pages charge, we can let the pseudo-science/pseudo-philosophy charge rest a little, I think. See also the notes I made here: [[User talk:Platos Cave (physics)#Link to an external web site]], including &quot;There does in fact seem to be commercial value: the Amazon link indicates the Kindle edition sells for 6.99 USD.&quot; The page titles themselves serve to unduly promote (catch Google searches) since they appear rather generic and misleading. For instance, &quot;Simulation hypothesis (Planck)&quot; sounds as if it was an exploration of the simulation hypothesis of the universe by Max Planck, but that is not what it is (similarly for other page titles). Moving to userspace addresses the issue since user space is not indexed by Google, etc.; otherwise, outright deletion would be in order (and moving to user space improves auditability as well as application of something like common law). The affected pages: [[Simulation hypothesis (Planck)]], [[Electron (mathematical)]], [[Planck units (geometrical)]], [[Physical constant (anomaly)]], [[Quantum gravity (Planck)]], [[Fine-structure constant (spiral)]], [[Relativity (Planck)]], [[Black-hole (Planck)]], [[Sqrt Planck momentum]]. As an aside, thank you to Atcovi for bringing this up. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:37, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
::So the reason for moving to userspace is now because there is a book on Amazon. And if I remove this book? [[User:Platos Cave (physics)|Platos Cave (physics)]] ([[User talk:Platos Cave (physics)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Platos Cave (physics)|contribs]]) 09:25, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
::: I think after this unacceptable self-promoting behavior, e.g. trying to create an association from &quot;Simulation hypothesis (Planck)&quot; item/headword to one's for-profit item by means of intermediate links, I think we should just move it to user space and not worry about whether some of the issues were addressed. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:28, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
::::{{ping|Dan Polansky}} I would believe that if there is self-promotion going on with these pages (which is evident), then it should be deleted. Solicitation is not allowed on Wikiversity, even in userspace. See [[Wikiversity:SD]] for a definition: &quot;Solicitation for products, services, companies, events, people or other things with no educational merit or which generate direct financial benefit to the contributor.&quot; Moving pages to userspace should only be done to content that is not fit for the mainspace, but doesn't go above non-educational content (copyvios, self-promotion, discriminatory content, etc.). This clearly does, IMO. What do you think? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:45, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
::::: That is a point worth considering: overt (for-profit) self-promo ==&gt; del. As an initial thought, I will point out that user space is not Google-indexed, so not deleting and userifying instead destroys the promotional motive/incentive while providing excellent auditability for anyone who comes along and wants to request an undeletion. Whether the auditability is worth it in this case I would need to figure out. I would need to figure out the adverse consequences of userfying self-promo like that. A copyvio, for instance, seems to be a much stronger case for deletion than for-profit self-promo. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 14:54, 18 November 2025 (UTC)

: '''Move''' to user space. Original theory by single author. Citations are circular/self-referential. Lacks consensus or peer-review. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:54, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Hilbert Book Model Project]] ==
{{archive top|'''moved to userspace''' pseudoscience that fails Wikiversity's learning objectives (see comments below). —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:19, 14 January 2026 (UTC)}}
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{{Special:Prefixindex/Hilbert Book Model Project}}
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Pseudoscience/fringe work that isn't scientifically supported nor supported by [[Wikiversity:original research|Wikiversity's original research guidelines]]. All research regarding this model goes back to the author, who has tried to promote this on [https://www.amazon.com/Hilbert-Book-Model-Hans-Leunen/dp/1470998769 Amazon via his own book]. All the &quot;scientific publications&quot; are only from the author and are on self-publicated websites. Lastly, &quot;The content of this project is not peer reviewed. The reader is responsible for checking the validity of what he/she reads. The peer review process cannot cope with the dynamics of revisions and extensions. Reviewers are always biased, and they are never omniscient. The peer review process is expensive and often poses barriers to renewal of science.&quot; is alarming and goes against Wikiversity's principles of learning. I propose moving this entire project into the original user's userspace. {{ping|HansVanLeunen}} notifying the user of this discussion via this ping, but the author has been inactive on the Wikimedia Projects since 2019. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:05, 16 November 2025 (UTC)
: I am inclined to support moving to user space, but I want to have a calmer look later. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:26, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
:@[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] What's the point of labeling it with a template, saying that it's a POV and that someone contradicts the ideas presented in the research? I've seen such templates somewhere. The problem with the entire argument for deletion here is the unapproved original research policy. However, if you believe that Wikiversity is being abused to promote some hypothesis of the author, then I would be in favor of deleting it. What struck me was that it's translated into several languages ​​and that the translations are on en. It could be an attempt to debate multilingually, but also an attempt to promote it in various languages. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:13, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to user page as per Atcovi's request. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:21, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Thick Description and Implicature]] &amp; other similar pages  ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' - original user is currently indef'd from Wikiversity due to sockpuppetry and persistent disruptive editing. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:17, 4 January 2026 (UTC)}}
Low quality, confusing rambles that have no verifiability nor educational substance behind them. I asked {{ping|KYPark}} personally on his page [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:KYPark#Disruptive_Page_Creations regarding these pages he's been creating], and has not offered a justification for the pages in accordance to Wikiversity's [[WV:Learning|guidelines on learning]]. Essentially the pages seem to rely on fallacies, erroneous causal claims, and the testimony of an AI bot to justify its existence. The user does not agree with moving them into their userspace and insists they are &quot;highly educational&quot;, so I'm seeking the community's opinion on the matter.

Other pages suffering from similar problems include:
*[[Why and Why Not Basic English]]
*[[The Meaning of Words]]
*[[Lambda World]]
*[[AI English]]
*[[Vital Vocabulary]]

I invite everyone's thoughts on the matter.
—[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:46, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
: If we accept my proposal at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#General ban on direct use of GenAI output with exceptions]], some of these pages would be quasi-deleted (=moved to user space) on being largely GenAI-generated alone, regardless of whether the use of GenAI is properly attributed. To properly assess them as for meaningfulness, I would need to carefully handle them one by one; GenAI does often produces valid results, and identifying the parts that are wrong requires more than a cursory look by a non-expert.
: They also violate another principle: any page that is original research needs to be tagged with {{tl|Original research}}; they are not.
: I propose to block [[user:KYPark]] from creating new pages until we figure out what to do with them. Assuming KayYayPark is the same person as KYPark (KayYayPark confirmed this, but KYPark did not), I was dealing with problems created by this person before and I gave up since I did not have the blocking tools (I made a request at [[WV:Request custodian action]]). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:34, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
::After reviewing the request at [[WV:Request custodian action]] and seeing that the user is using two accounts to create low-quality, AI-slop, I've gone ahead and blocked the main account, KYPark, for 2 weeks from creating new pages. The disruption stemming from this user has been going on for a while, and this block is needed to figure out what we should do with the remaining pages. As per my conversation with this user on their talk page and evident by their talk page(s), they have been pretty combatant and unwilling to come to an agreement regarding their nonsensical &quot;thesis&quot; (which, once again, has no arguments to back it up except for causation and guesswork). A harsher block will take place if the user switches to their alternative account to continue their disruption.
::If you are willing to give your analysis on each page, Dan, I'd be grateful. Thanks! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:21, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
::: I quote the utterly disingenuous take: 'It's beginning to get very exhausting trying to rid of the disruptive material and other garbage that has been growing on the English Wikiversity, and dealing with a user who still fails to see the problems with their contributions is taking the time away from developing resources. I originally believed Dan could be a positive asset to the community as a regular editor, but its obvious that this pattern of disruption is not going to change. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 01:11, 20 November 2025 (UTC)', from [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]]. I wonder whether any comment is needed or whether what is going on is self-explanatory. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:18, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
: Doesn't belong in main space:
:* [[Thick Description and Implicature]] - '''Delete'''. Dump of genAI conversation.
:* [[Why and Why Not Basic English]] - '''Delete'''. Dump of genAI conversation.
:* [[The Meaning of Words]] - '''Move''' to user space. Personal essay.
:* [[Lambda World]] - '''Move''' to user space. Personal notes. No obvious learning objective.
:* [[AI English]] - '''Delete'''. Dump of genAI conversation.
:* [[Vital Vocabulary]] - '''Move''' to user space. Personal notes. No obvious learning objective.
: -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:55, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Minoan Civilization]] ==
{{archive top|'''moved to draft''' —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:21, 14 January 2026 (UTC)}}
Resource that has not been developed since April 2023. The author, [[User:SecretlyHistoric|SecretlyHistoric]], has not been active on the Wikimedia Projects since then. I'm proposing that the page should be moved to the &quot;Draft&quot; namespace. I wasn't sure if I could just '''be bold''' and do it myself, but I guess it doesn't hurt to make sure the community is in line with my reasoning. Thoughts? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:50, 17 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''' (or Draft, as a 2nd best option); the subpages for weeks are basically empty, e.g. [[Minoan Civilization/Protopalatial Period]]. One could perhaps argue that the list of 4 books saves the page, but I find it unconvincing. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:25, 18 November 2025 (UTC)
::I don't really understand why to move pages to user own userspace. Wikiversity should be a source of educational pages for everyone. Moving pages to the user namespace can lead to everyone starting to natively place pages there, which we don't want and it's not Wikiversity's goal to provide users with a private web space (in the userspace, almost no one usually interferes without being asked). If there is a belief that someone will take care of it, it's worth moving it to draft, if that belief is not there, then delete it. I think that page creators should be notified about RFCs of their pages on their discussion page so that they can be informed that something is happening with their pages and maybe they can show up and say something about it, but that's for another discussion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 21:01, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
::: You can start a discussion on changing the long-term English Wikiversity tradition of moving pages to user space instead of deleting them in Colloquium. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:17, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move''' to draft namespace. Consists of a course homepage and empty weekly sub-pages. No development of learning resources or recent activity. However, it has a structure that could be built on. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:40, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Pi-Conjugated Materials]] ==
{{archive top|'''deleted''' —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:30, 14 January 2026 (UTC)}}
Undeveloped resource that has not been improved on since creation. Original author, [[User:Jgutierrez]], has not been active on the project since 2009. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:24, 30 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' per nom -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:32, 1 December 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''' or, as a second best option, '''delete''' per nomination above. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:20, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
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== [[User:Dan Polansky/Problem reports (about Wikiversity problems)]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' - clearly disruptive material with no benefit from a user with a long history of belligerent behavior. Material like this should be kept off-wiki. Similar to another page that was deleted, [[User:Dan Polansky/User Juandev]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 13:36, 18 December 2025 (UTC)}}
User Harold Foppele has nominated the page for speedy deletion on 6 December 2025, in [[Special:Diff/2778468]], the reason being &quot;pillorying&quot;. I have now turned this into a RfD so that editors (including myself) can determine what should be done with the page.

I propose to keep the page and remove any items that are determined to be unacceptable. I created the page to track problems and relieve my memory after my requests in [[WV:RCA]] were being ignored.

The page is in user space and therefore not indexed by Google. And thus, the exposure to public view is rather minimal; one can at best see changes to the page in ''Recent changes'' when changes are being made. By contrast, my posts at [[WV:RCA]] are high-visibility posts and become part of written record and history in Wikiversity namespace.

Multiple items listed on that page are now closed; thank you to the custodians who helped.

User Harold Foppele may specifically object to items about himself on the page he wants deleted. As regards his person, it is now two physicists from Wikipedia who support an action against him to protect the English Wikiversity: [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Request page creation block for Harold Foppele]], created on 6 December 2025. While one of the physicists has withdrawn the request, apparently after becoming frustrated with Wikiversity junkification of the mainspace, the request is valid on substance, by my assessment. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 17:05, 16 December 2025 (UTC)

As for ''pillorying'', I am not clear to what policy or principle it would refer. Surely unfair attacks on my person e.g. in [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Concern regarding curator conduct User:Dan Polansky]] and [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Dan Polansky]] would also constitute ''pillorying''? And while the problem tracking page in my user space can be deleted later once the problems are addressed, these unfair attacks on me will remain as part of the historical record in Wikiversity namespace? I do not think this is a useful concept. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:07, 17 December 2025 (UTC)

:The discussion should take place at [[User talk:Dan Polansky/Problem reports (about Wikiversity problems)]] as clearly stated in the delete tag. 
:This user page may qualify for [[Wikiversity:Deletions|speedy deletion]] because: pillorying illegal reverted edit
:If you disagree or intend to fix it, and '''you have not contributed to it before''', you may remove this notice. If you have contributed before and disagree, please explain why on [[User talk:Dan Polansky/Problem reports (about Wikiversity problems)|the discussion page]], after adding {{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Template:Hangon|hangon]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}} to the top of the page. This will alert [[Wikiversity:Support staff|curators and custodians]] to your intention, and may permit you the time to write your explanation.&lt;br&gt;
:[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 16:33, 17 December 2025 (UTC)
:: I went through [[Wikiversity:Deletions#Speedy]] and did not find any item that would suggest that ''speedy applies''.
:: [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Indefinite block for Harold Foppele]] contains enough substantiation and support to, by my assessment, justify an indefinite block of Harold Foppele, to stop this embarassment of the English Wikiversity administration. More substantiation is at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Request page creation block for Harold Foppele]]. Two physicists indicated his content is very bad; my assessment that his content is very bad can be dismissed. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:40, 17 December 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Spanish/Spanish One/SO-Lesson 1]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' - per community agreement. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:07, 11 March 2026 (UTC))}}
I would delete just this page as it is not completed, the tutor is not active, and it probably doesn't bring any good. The linked on-wv resources can be used elsewhere by other en.wv courses. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:17, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' per nominator who is also the original creator. More complete Spanish lessons are available on en.wv. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:12, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' per the above wish of the page creator, Juandev. The page  was created on 1 January 2008. Near the beginning, it says &quot;In this introductory lesson participants will download a version of the textbook and also install skype in order to communicate with an instructor.&quot; Thus, the participants would have communicated with Juandev, I suppose, using Skype; this will no longer happen as per Juandev's own statement above. The page does not seem to have much that would have to be saved; someone could perhaps want to use some of the links, http://wordreference.com/, http://dictionaries.reverso.net/ and http://www.altavista.babelfish.com/ (which I list here for anyone's convenience). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:42, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
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== [[:Category:Spanish:An Introduction]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' - per community consensus.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:39, 11 March 2026 (UTC)}}
I started the course [[Spanish: An Introduction]] a while ago and never completed it. I will not be able to resume it any time soon; it hasn't been resumed by someone else for a very long time, and we do have two complete Spanish courses ([[Spanish 1]] and [[Spanish 2]]). So I don't see the point in keeping this torso. The course includes the following pages:
*[[Spanish: An Introduction]]
*[[Spanish: An Introduction/About Spanish]]
*[[Spanish: An Introduction/Pronunciation]]
*[[Spanish: An Introduction/Pronunciation/Conquista de América]]
*[[Spanish: An Introduction/Pronunciation/Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]]
*[[Spanish: An Introduction/Teaching tools]]
*[[User:Juandev/Teacher availability]]

With related discussion pages. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:38, 20 November 2025 (UTC)

: '''Delete''' per nominator who is also the original creator. There is some potentially useful material that could be integrated into existing lessons, but more complete Spanish lessons are available on en.wv, so it would be tidier/easier if this incomplete course was removed. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:16, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' since the learning outcomes from these pages are scarce ([[WV:Deletions]]). Why not move to user space: this could be done, but since the author Juandev prefers deletion, deletion is perhaps preferable in this case. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:35, 12 December 2025 (UTC)

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== [[:Category:Pomology]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per consensus. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:37, 12 March 2026 (UTC)}}
I propose deleting this category, which contains only the course I also propose deleting. The course was never completed; it has been unfinished for a long time, and no one else appears willing to complete it. I will not have time in the near future to work on it. List of affected pages:
*[[Pomology]]
*[[Pomology/Teaching tools]]
*[[Banana production]]
*[[Pineapple production]]
*[[Pomology/Fruit and its importance]]
*[[Pomology/Tropical and subtropical pomology I]]
*[[Pomology/Tropical and subtropical pomology II]]

--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 22:09, 20 November 2025 (UTC)
: In a case like this, deletions are better done on a per subpages structure basis than on a per category basis. And Dave recommended using {{tl|proposed deletion}} when opposition is not expected, and RFD as a last resort. But I do not mind a RFD.
: 1) '''Move to user space''' or '''delete''' the page [[Pomology]] and its subpages: too underdeveloped, too little to learn from here.
: 2) As for [[Banana production]], '''move to user space''' or '''delete''': too little to learn from here. Created by [[User:Juandev]] in 2006.
: 3) As for [[Pineapple production]], '''move to user space''' or '''delete''' as per request of the page creator, [[User:Juandev]] (created in 2006). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:11, 21 November 2025 (UTC)
::I'm sorry, but what kind of proposal is this to move a page created by multiple users to a single user's namespace. How do you choose which one? If it were me, how can I reverse this action? Last time, when I tried to reverse it, you reverted me. Can I then propose the page to be deleted from my userspaec again? Will you then propose moving it again, perhaps to another userspace or something? In my opinion, this procedure is very bad and does not have wider support. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:58, 23 November 2025 (UTC)
::: For instance, from https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Banana_production&amp;action=history, the page has pretty much a single content inserter, the creator: &quot;13 December 2006 Juandev discuss contribs 2,010 bytes&quot;. It is therefore quite meaningful to move this to userspace. However, I don't object to deletion, especially since this is the wish of the creator Juandev, as per above. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:26, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' category and project pages per nominator who is also the original creator. Incomplete course with no activity for a long time. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:22, 22 November 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Information system modelling]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per consensus. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:36, 15 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Not much sustenance. 
*[[Information system modelling/Lesson 1:Activity diagrams]] barely has anything useful above the introduction sentence.
*[[Information system modelling/Introductory lesson]] seems to be a stub.
The course has not been developed further since 2008, and the author, [[User:Grovermj|Grovermj]], has been inactive on the project since 2008. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 01:33, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
—[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 01:33, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
: '''Delete''' per nom -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:17, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''' or, as a 2nd best option, '''delete''' per nom: too underdeveloped to be any use. Guideline: [[WV:Deletions]], &quot; learning outcomes are scarce&quot;. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:22, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Graham School of Science and Mathematics]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per consensus. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:39, 15 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Seems to read more like a Wikipedia page than a Wikiversity page. I don't see any parts of this page that encourages active learning. The author, [[User:Wnateg|Wnateg]], created the page in 2014 and has not returned to the project since then. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:43, 2 December 2025 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per nom -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:49, 3 December 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''' or, as a 2nd best option, '''delete''' per nom: almost nothing to learn from here. Guideline: [[WV:Deletions]], &quot;learning outcomes are scarce&quot;. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:23, 12 December 2025 (UTC)
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== [[Portal:Danish]] ==
{{archive top|'''Deleted''' per consensus.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:32, 15 March 2026 (UTC)}}
Extremely underdeveloped. No improvements made since 2013. The author, [[User:Cuchifrito1216|Cuchifrito1216]], created the page in 2013 and has been inactive on the project since then. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:11, 2 December 2025 (UTC)

:'''Delete''' per nom -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:50, 3 December 2025 (UTC)
: '''Move to user space''' or, as a second best option, '''delete''' per nomination above. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:18, 12 December 2025 (UTC)


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== [[Palliative medicine]] ==
{{archive top|'''Kept'''. Page has been improved. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:38, 17 May 2026 (UTC)}}

Underdeveloped and has not been improved on since 2007. Author inactive. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:42, 14 December 2025 (UTC)

:Delete, per nominator [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:16, 22 January 2026 (UTC)
:Yes, I would also expect there to be more and especially that someone would write how to use it. However, it still seems to me to be a useful thing in the sense of a syllabus, so that someone who is interested in the topic knows what information to obtain in order to get a complete picture of the topic. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:55, 16 March 2026 (UTC)
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      <sha1>rz8iux7rs8r97ims83jb8b2shjl8khl</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka</title>
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      <text bytes="94830" sha1="56hcqqrtx9y2vy8j9cc56rc1sttr2w0" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
| last1 = Azeez
| orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614
| first1 = Aaqib
| last2 = 
| first2 = 
| last3 = 
| first3 = 
| last4 = 
| first4 = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Old Dominion University
| correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com
| affiliations = institutes / affiliations
| correspondence = email@address.com
| keywords = &lt;!-- up to 6 keywords --&gt;
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = This is a narrative review.
}}

''Mental health issues continue to be a significant problem in Sri Lanka, with 2022 suicide rates in the country at 15 per 100,000 people, above the global average of 10.5 per 100,000 people''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|date=2024-12-31|title=Suicide in Sri Lanka: Reflections and ways forward|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8602|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8602|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;''. The barriers to mental healthcare on the island are multi-faceted and are best understood with historical context. This narrative review covers the historical developments of mental healthcare to the present-day, impacts of historical events within the last 100 years, current challenges affecting mental health outcomes, the role of the major religions in mental health and mental healthcare, and recommendations for future mental healthcare improvement. The author uses peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports to support clinical and historical statements, though non-peer-reviewed sources were used to contextualize historical and non-clinical claims. The narrative review concludes that outdated legislation, impacts from recent conflicts or disasters, stigma surrounding mental health, and economic vulnerability contribute to mental health issues and the inefficiency of mental healthcare services. The author recommends updating legal frameworks, expansion of services, and raising awareness to mitigate social stigma.''

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain concerning despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka. Sources used included peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan journals, and official Sri Lankan governmental websites displaying relevant statistics/reports. Studies included were published prior to 2026. Keywords used to conduct searches include, but not limited to, were: &quot;Sri Lanka mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka civil war trauma&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka suicide&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka mental health ordinances&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka religion and mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka public mental healthcare&quot;, and &quot;Sri Lanka poverty/economic crisis mental health impact.&quot; Studies that were included were relevant to the topic (Sri Lanka, South Asian mental health law, suicide, public mental health, conflict/disaster trauma, or cultural/religious practice), had full text available, and were in the English language. Non-peer-reviewed sources were primarily used to explain historical claims or contextualize non-clinical claims. ''[include date of final search when needed]'' 

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had &quot;the spirit of the Gods within him&quot; and &quot;whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were &quot;placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world&quot;, with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a &quot;large scale segregation of mentally ill from society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. 

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of significant renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.   

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The LTTE waged decades of massacres, assassinations of political figures, and suicide bombings to achieve ''[[w:Tamil_Eelam|Tamil Eelam]],'' leading to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians evacuating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns initiated by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009).]]
Accusation of war crimes have been leveraged towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]]&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report alleged that the Sri Lankan government considered the native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Vanni population also faced recruitment campaigns by the LTTE, where recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, were utilized for war efforts.  

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were poorl&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions].&quot; Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Anti-Muslim sentiment was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced significant inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values are encouraged to be emphasized across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against groups criticized for promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been officially approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

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        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Future possbilities */</comment>
      <origin>2817979</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="108197" sha1="9wr8i9k2smj9qh6jd4yetene1loim1v" xml:space="preserve">== Utiliser Wikidata pour mettre en œuvre une méthode de revue de littérature vivante, Conférence pour les méthodes pour les sciences sociales et les humanités, 9 et 10 Juillet 2026 (Aubervilliers, France) ==

== Acknowledgements ==
The present text was originally written on a Wikiversity page, if you are reading it in another format, you can find this page here : [[Just sustainability transitions: a living review|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review]]. You are free to add your comments on the page discussion section. 

=== Contributors ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing
|-
|Amélie E. Pereira
|Laboratoire DICEN IDF
|https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5928-5586
|Meta-data enrichement, article writing
|-
|Finn Nielsen
|Technical University of Denmark
|https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356
|Data visualisation
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

=== The problem of academic information overload ===
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

=== The problem of knowledge synthesis ===
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

=== The problem of scientific results dissemination ===
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

== Toward a living review on just sustainability transition ==

=== Just sustainability transition ===
Just sustainability transition transition is &quot;a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; and fragmented results coming from various disciplines&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Then, making literature reviews &quot;living&quot; would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories.  

=== Living reviews ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Human validation stays notably necessary&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process.

=== Wikimedia projects ===
Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&amp;oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is a &quot;collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&amp;oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. &quot;A  [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&amp;oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Like Wikipedia pages, Wikiversity pages are editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab. 

Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?'''

In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : 

● '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.

● '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…).

● '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs.

● '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data).

We also have 2 assumptions :

● '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool.

● '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers.
== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal was to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of a corpus of articles we selected into Wikidata. The second step was to model the content  of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. typologies, causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on a Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy.

== 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations). To do so we imported academic references into Wikidata, and explored the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus.

=== Database search ===
Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt; (e.g. the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;). Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation, their consultation, or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions).

We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article selection ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were : 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies/initiatives/cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors 
* Including justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files with the lists of included and excluded articles are available on the archive plateform Zenodo : https://zenodo.org/records/20749974

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
Before importing the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in Wikidata. Next, we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through metadata enrichement ===
Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt) (e.g. &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;). 

By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. 

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ====
The sample of article we selected included only litterature reviews, but we wanted to describ what kind of literature review it was. We first read abstracts to identify all the different types of litterature reviews present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, we added a statement saying that {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information &amp; Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After this step, the {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q2412849}} in Wikidata were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ====
When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by linking a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking this identifier to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers by categorizing scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6977}} ====
We explored the possibility to model review networks, that is linking review paper to reviewed papers (and not broadly cited papers). We selected one of the paper which had the most detailed list of reviewed papers ({{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}), then we added this list in Wikidata using Open refine. Then we snowballed this process for the reviewed papers which were also litterature reviews.

=== Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus ===
To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' The sections below discuss the advantages and limitations of wikidata regarding this hypothesis.

==== Advantages of Wikidata ====
Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows anyone to enter more metadata about each academic articles. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} of the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, &quot;energy transition&quot; was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Wikidata's collaborative nature is here adain an advantage. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). 

==== Limitations of Wikidata ====
The limitations of Wikidata is that it is not yet well integrated with the tools researchers use to do literature reviews (kowledge management softwares and bibliographic databases).    

Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to &quot;filter&quot; the part of the knowledge graph we were working on.   

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount of bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. In this context, the community has to rethink the purpose of Wikidata regarding bilbiographic data.   

==== Future possbilities ====
A solution to the limitations would be to developp the role of Wikidata as a link between other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. (Example :&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Finn Årup|last2=Lyhne|first2=Ivar|last3=Garigliotti|first3=Dario|last4=Butzbach|first4=Annika|last5=Ravn Boess|first5=Emilia|last6=Hose|first6=Katja|last7=Kørnøv|first7=Lone|date=2023|title=Environmental impact assessment reports in Wikidata and a Wikibase|url=https://repositum.tuwien.at/handle/20.500.12708/193492|language=en|publisher=CEUR-WS.org|volume=3443|pages=1–8|doi=10.34726/5421}}&lt;/ref&gt;)  Wikidata could then be an intermediary between locally curated corpus and more exhaustive bilbiographic catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and sharing enriched corpus in Wikidata could help to train more precise taging algorythms.

- Test annotation softwares : https://inception-project.github.io/ ; https://pacte.crim.ca/index_en.html

== 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. We present these methodologies before describing our current knowledge modelling experimentations.

=== Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks ===
This section presents social science methodology that presents similarities with knowledge modelling.

==== Concept maps ====
[[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;Cañas, Alberto J., et al. &quot;CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment.&quot; (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap]&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;, Altas.Ti &quot;network&quot; feature...). The &quot;box and arrow&quot; logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data.  
  
==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.   
[[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]]

==== Causal diagrams ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; After identifying themes, qualitative researchers are expected to theorize the &quot;arrows&quot; between themes&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;R.esearchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Knowledge modelling in Wikidata ===
This section presents our knowledge modelling experimentation in Wikidata.

==== Conceptual modelling ====
Our first step was to reflect on what is a &quot;concept&quot; and what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; and modelling concepts in Wikidata could help to build less ambiguous concepts. Concept definition encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing psychology and philsosophy approaches on the determination of the content of concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
*Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
*Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties).
*Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en).
*Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can use it before really knowing what its properties will be.
*Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ====
To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting with the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source in manually entered statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q3249551}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

[[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]]

We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). These issues were related to contradictions, precision, concision and ontology. We discuss each issue and draft recommandations to refine our modelling process.  

===== Contradictions =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in &quot;does not have effect&quot; seems contrary to what is listed in &quot;has goal&quot;.) We would however argue this is not a problem because &quot;statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Besides, in the case of goals versus effects statements, it is not contradictory because one can have a goal and fail to achieve it. In the case of energy democracy, the discrepancy between the stated goals of this movement and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;.  

Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. 

===== Precision =====
We noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. As a result, we received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). In addition to the ambiguity of sources, a reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items. While following this implicit rule allowed us to focus on the most notable concepts, creating new items could also help make the statements more precise. 

Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata.  [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between &quot;concept&quot; and &quot;political concept&quot;.]]
===== Concision =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were &quot;in the tree of another value&quot;. The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification :
*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized (we opened a discussion about this here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity&lt;nowiki/&gt;) The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize this kind of relationship (using &quot;instance of&quot; as transversal property and checking &quot;instance of or subclass of&quot;).

*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. Choosing the degree of precision is a problem similar to choosing whether or not to create a new item.
Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize redundancies. 

===== Quantification =====
Modelling quantitative statements was challenging. We mostly skipped those but made an attempt for one case : the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanegas-Cantarero|first=María M.|date=2020-12-01|title=Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901196|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=70|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for &quot;final energy consumption&quot;. There are such properties in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item  (e.g. the population of a town) on Wikipedia through dynamic infoboxes that are updated with Wikidata information. But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Therefore creating properties for every quantifiable characteristic may not be possible. An alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). 

[[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]]

Despite this possibility, since quantitative data are usually stored elsewhere in more convenient formats, it may not be always relevant to include quantitative data into Wikidata. Instead, it might be more useful to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. 

Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured, link it toward an external datasets and add quantitative statements if relevant.

===== Ontology =====
Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple types of entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. We reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements, but encountered struggles to model differences between ''process versus outcomes'', ''ideal versus reality'', ''phenomenon versus theory'' and ''discourses versus practices''. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. Another problem was to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was also difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory,'' for example, we did not manage to model the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented. Finally, we also would have needed more distinctions between ''discourses and practices.'' Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea.

Our first attempt to multiple &quot;natures&quot; of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory, and implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. To do so we have to decide how to split the different natures {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} and what will be the relationship between the resulting items. Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in Wikidata can quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Indeed, the relations between the different types of entities constituting the social worls are not simple nor consensual among philosophers of social science.  

For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q15080858}} posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)&lt;ref&gt;Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.&lt;/ref&gt;. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. 

In theory, such ontology can be implemented in Wikidata as it &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... A quick search seem to show that entities related to the social reality can quickly fall into heterogeneous and sometime contradictory root classes (see table below). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Item
!Existing root class entity
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q12705}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}
{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q132907471}}
|}

=== Future steps ===
Current {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} in Wikidata do not seem very informative to classify the aspects of our concept in a top-down manner. Our next steps will thus be to :  

* Export the existing model of the concept to keep track of each modelling steps (files and graphs screenshots)

*Explore if existing standards offer more relevant classes to categorize social entities (we opened the discussion about social ontology with the wikidata community here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology).
**CRMSoc : https://cidoc-crm.org/crmsoc/fm_releases
**Criteria for choosing an ontology = choose something that is used and maintained by a community (colleague feedback)
*Create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... based on a new reading of our sample of article and aligned with existing ontologies.
*Compare grounded theory/CAQDAS with knowledge modelling methods

== 3. Data visualisation ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below.

=== Filter statements ===

*Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH
*Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Properties visualisation ===

*Visualise the &quot;tree&quot; of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io)

=== Concepts visualisation ===

*Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. [[d:Wikidata:Scholia|Scholia]] request &quot;topic in context&quot;)
*Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons.

=== Mapping sources consensus ===

*Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible.

== 4. Writing ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). 

=== Advantages of Wikiversity ===
Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}&lt;/ref&gt;). The possibility to view the page history provide an exhaustive versionning of a paper, which constitute interesting data documenting the academic writing process (at first we did not comment the nature of our modifications but after thinking about this reuse possibility, we described it with more details). The contribution statistics based on the history also offers a new way to track author's contributions to a paper in a transparent way.

=== The issue of text interoperability ===
A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, but the management of references is lacking. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication (the only possibility is to export the page as a PDF and you may be reading this article in this format).   

There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? To what extent academic publisher will accept to publish &quot;remixed&quot; texts while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and this could be an interesting conversation to have in the open science community.  

== Discussion ==
Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping new methodological standards regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis even though such reasonning are likely present. The modelling process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing to avoid semantic confusion&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to &quot;navigate&quot; it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to &quot;navigate&quot; scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the compatibilities between writing publicly on a wiki page and engaging in classical publication processes.

A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build living literature reviews including knowledge graphs and wiki pages. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and include the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 

== Funding ==
This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&amp;_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603.

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Linguistic landscapes in education</title>
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{{Education}}{{Course}}
== Starting Activity ==
Imagine you are a teacher arriving at a school in a city you are unfamiliar with. As you walk through the city, in your new neighborhood or on your way to school, you notice many public signs, advertisements and posters in multiple languages, some of which you can recognize while others not. You start to wonder how this could be used and integrated into education.

Some of the signs you see could be: 

[[File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|alt=Signs in both Breton and French in Quimper, Brittany.|300px|Signs in both Breton and French in Quimper, Brittany. Wikimedia Commons]]
[[File:Photo taken by Anastasia Gkaintarzi.jpg|alt=Sign in Leopold Park in Brussels|300px|Sign in Leopold Park in Brussels (by Anastasia Gkaintarzi)]]
[[File:Photo taken by Anastasia Gkaintartzi.jpg|alt=Graffiti in Brussels|300px|Graffiti in Brussels (by Anastasia Gkaintarzi)]]

You start thinking:
* How can you describe the signs you see?
* Which languages do you identify? Are there languages that you do not identify?
* What is the relationship between the diverse multimodal resources?  


== Objectives ==
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

* Describe the concept of the LL and other -scapes such as schoolscape)
* Understand how the LL can be studied
* Connect the LL to education 
* Make use of the LL as a pedagogical resource

== Key words ==
Linguistic Llandscape, schoolscape, educationscape, language policies, critical language awareness  

== Table of contents ==

# Introduction 
# History of the concept
# Definition
# Linguistic landscapes for education: inside and outside institutions
# Take-home messages
# Self-assessment
# Resources to go further
# Bibliography

== Introduction ==
The Linguistic Landscape (henceforth LL) is a dynamic fast developing field in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics, expanding to various research methodologies and epistemological perspectives. Research into LL began as an investigation into the presence, visibility and prominence of languages represented on signs and texts in public spaces. The seminal work of Landry and Bourhis (1997) is widely acknowledged as the beginning of LL research. Research now goes far beyond documenting language and other semiotic signs ( = any signs that communicate meaning) on the streets, in advertising, in street names, shops, graffiti, images, etc., and focuses more on examining LL in terms of power, ideology, activism and the willingness to change the space. 

In this lesson, the LL is introduced as an area of research in and for education. 

== '''History of the concept''' ==
The LL broadly refers to the visibility and use of language in public spaces. LL research explores public spaces as “arenas of language use, representation, and controversy” (Shohamy, 2017, p. 44). The origins of LL research go back to studies of public signs in the 1970s and 1980s. However, the field began to grow more rapidly in the 1990s, alongside increased interest in LLs and ethnolinguistic vitality. Early LL studies were often quantitative. Researchers focused on documenting language diversity by counting signs and distinguishing between ''top-down'' signs (created by authorities) and ''bottom-up'' signs (created by individuals or unofficial groups). Shohamy (2017, pp. 45–61) refers to this first phase as “Documenting Diversity.” In the second phase, LL broadened its focus beyond language to include “images, sounds, drawings and movement, in line with current theories about multimodality” in public and semi-public spaces (Shohamy, 2011, p. 538). This gave rise to related concepts such as skinscapes, smellscapes, soundscapes etc.. The third phase of LL research centers on challenging the idea of cities as homogenous spaces. It examines the many ways people use elements of the linguistic landscape to make diversity—linguistic and otherwise—visible and recognized. In the fourth phase, researchers focus on smaller units such as neighborhoods, quarters, ghettos, villages, enclaves, parishes, or streets. This allows for a more detailed understanding of the context in which signs appear. Shohamy describes the fifth and last phase as “Engagement in Diversity: Critical Awareness and Activism” and highlights the growing number of LL studies in education.

To sum up the historical overview, LL research has evolved from focusing on linguistic signs to examining multimodal signs. Methodologically, it has shifted from a primarily quantitative approach to more qualitative and ethnographically oriented methods. Moreover, multimodal signs are now more explicitly situated within their historical and sociocultural contexts.

== '''Definition''' ==
The historical overview has shown that the understanding of the LL has evolved significantly over the past few decades. We will now examine a presentation on LL and relate its content to the historical development of this field of research. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!'''Reflection: What “is” the Linguistic Landscape?'''
|-
|[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPjzI_4pNug In this video] the LL and sociolinguistics researcher Jacki Lou talks about the concept of LL.

* How does Jackie Lou define LL?
* What differs from other possible definitions? Is her understanding more broad or narrow?
* How would you describe the LL visible in the short video? 
|}

=== '''LL for Education - inside and outside institutions''' ===
LL research in education covers the entire spectrum of the research perspectives outlined above. LL has a multifaceted contribution to education, from promoting language learning and supporting critical language awareness to questioning existing language hierarchies (Vetter 2022). To explore LL in the context of plurilingual education, we will first consider how it appears within schools, and then examine its role outside formal educational institutions.

The concept of the ''schoolscape'' was first introduced by Brown. It refers to the symbolic and physical environment of a school, where the curriculum is enacted and specific messages and values are officially endorsed and socially reinforced (Brown, 2005, p. 79). These school environments are filled with texts and images that help to construct, reproduce, and potentially transform language ideologies (Brown, 2012, p. 282). The study of schoolscapes—''schoolscaping''—involves analyzing the “school-based environment where place and text, both written (graphic) and oral, constitute, reproduce, and transform language ideologies” (Brown, 2012, p. 282). For the context of kindergartens, Brown (2018, p. 17) introduced the term ''kinderscape'', which refers to the LL found in early childhood education settings. As we will see in practical examples, schoolscapes are powerful tools for making language policy visible and accessible in educational settings.

Along with the schoolscape, the LL offers rich opportunities for educational purposes such as early literacy development, raising critical language awareness, and supporting language learning. Two main approaches have been proposed for integrating LL into education: a) Learning ''in the LL,'' beyond the classroom, situating learning /teaching into the public space through walking, reflecting on and interacting with LLs (Malinowski et al., 2020). The focus is rather ethnographic, involving observing, documenting and analyzing the ‘secret life of languages around us’ (Malinowski et al., 2020) and, b) Learning ''through the LL,'' which takes place inside the classroom, bringing the public space into the classroom and reframing it as a classroom resource through multimodal transposition (Brinkmann et al., 2022). This approach involves developing educational materials and resources based on the documentation of the LL. The development and design of LL activities can follow the steps below (Malinowski, 2015) : (1) observing and recording the LL by visiting locations and photographing signs (perceived space); (2) analyzing or creating texts by examining different viewpoints and media  representations of the area (conceived space); and (3) investigating how local people or others respond to signage, including students’ own reactions (lived space). Using these three perspectives to explore the linguistic landscape can significantly enrich students' learning experiences (Gorter &amp; Cenoz, 2024).

=== '''Practical examples''' ===
A growing body of research highlights the important role of linguistic landscapes (LL)—both inside and outside educational institutions—for plurilingual education. These studies are also notable for their creative and diverse methodological and practical approaches.

One key area is the treatment of minoritised languages and language varieties. In this regard, Brown’s research on Võro culture and language (2001–2003, 2013–2014) is particularly significant. Her work is remarkable not only for introducing the concept of the “schoolscape” and using a diachronic methodology, but also for offering deep insights into how schools evolved over more than a decade. Based on intensive ethnographic research in rural Southeastern Estonia, Brown’s study included Võro language classes, interviews with Võro-language teachers, and an in-depth case study of a single school, using observation and photography across various spaces within the school.

For example, she found that regional and local artifacts were stored in peripheral, hard-to-access areas, often disorganized and dusty. In contrast, artifacts linked to Estonia and Europe were displayed prominently and in good condition. From this initial research period, Brown concluded that regional language, culture, and identity were marginalized within the Estonian education system. She argued that this stark asymmetry poses a serious threat to efforts aimed at revitalising the Võro language. Roughly ten years later, Brown returned to the same school and kindergarten settings, photographing visible signs of the regional language and interviewing the same teachers. Based on this new data, she identified three key forces—referred to as &quot;engines&quot; (Brown 2018: 15)—that drove change: (1) the availability of institutionally appropriate, familiar forms of materials in the regional language (e.g. Võro calendars), (2) the increasing market appeal of regional language and culture and (3) teachers’  commitment to immersion pedagogy.

Another practical example, this time in the context of urban diversity, also demonstrates the link between schoolscapes and language education policy. Menken et al. (2018) conducted a qualitative study of 23 schools involved in the CUNY-NYSIEB initiative, which supports multilingualism and professional development in multilingual contexts. Their research found that transforming the schoolscape acted as a “language policy mechanism” (Menken et al. 2018: 123): students’ languages were incorporated visually and orally into classroom activities and signage, and the prevailing language ideologies shifted toward plurilingualism and plurilingual practices. One of their main conclusions is that “transforming the physical LL by making students’ languages visible served as a stepping stone for many schools to make further changes” (Menken et al. 2018: 122).

Studies of schoolscapes—and of LL beyond schools—also offer valuable methodological insights. Collaborative approaches, visual ethnography, and multi-method research are common. Specific techniques such as “walking tours” and the “tourist guide technique” have proven especially useful (Biró 2016; Szabó 2015).

== '''Take home messages''' ==

* LL  is concerned with multimodal semiotic signs that communicate meaning.
* LL is closely linked to issues of language policy, power and ideology.
* LL research has evolved from using primarily quantitative methods to adopting ethnographic and multi-method approaches.
* The contextualisation of signs—understanding them within their social, cultural, and historical settings—has become increasingly important.
* LL can be used as a valuable education resource and tool with multiple benefits.
* Schoolscapes can function as a powerful mechanism for reflecting, implementing and transforming language policy.

== '''Self''' '''assessment''' ==

=== '''Test''' ===
''Choose the appropriate answers from the options provided to answer the questions  (there may be more than one appropriate answers to some questions).''
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does the term ''linguistic landscape'' refer to?}
-A. The number of languages spoken in a country
+B. The visual display of languages in public spaces
-C. The study of grammar and syntax
-D. The official languages of a country

{Which of the following best describes a ''top-down'' sign?}
-A. An advertisement or a billboard
-B. A sign made by individuals
+C. A sign issued by authorities or government institutions
-D. A graffiti or mural

{Today, LL research methodology is mostly concerned with}
+A. Ethnography – observing and understanding how people use and interpret signs in their daily lives.
-B. Quantitative methods – counting languages on public signs.
-C. Multimethod research – combining different research approaches to get a fuller picture.
-D. Documenting signs – taking photos of and analysing signs found in public spaces.

{For what purposes can the LL be used in education?}
+A. Promoting critical language awareness
-B. Informing about the numbers of speakers of each language in the environment
+C. Supporting language learning
+D. Engaging in discussions about language ideologies
E. Reduce the number of languages used in class
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== '''Open Activity: LL Observation''' ===
Choose a specific place—such as a section of a street near a school—and analyze the linguistic landscape. Look at:

* The context of a sign:
** where is it placed?
** who might have implemented it?
** who might have responded to it?
** what languages/varieties and other multimodal resources can be traced?
** how do they interrelate?
* In which ways is the sign informative about social or linguistic debates and power issues?

'''Now, imagine how you could use this activity in your classroom. For example:'''

* Let students take photos and discuss the signs they find
* Reflect on which languages are visible and which are not, and why
* Use the signs as a starting point to address issues of language diversity and power relations
* Create multilingual signs together with students and have them manifested in the school/classroom 

This activity could lead to a more long-term project on belonging, citizenship and inclusion.

== Further ressources ==
Linguistic Landscapes. Learning and Teaching with Urban and Linguistic Landscapes talk at Columbia University Talk given by Elana Shohamy. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J9CjoCxRLsc

== Bibliography ==
Biró, E. (2016). Learning schoolscapes in a minority setting. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 8(2), 109–21. 

Brinkmann, L. M., MacMonagle, S., &amp; Melo-Pfeifer, S. (Eds.) (2022). ''Guidelines for introducing linguistic landscapes in (foreign) language learning and teacher education''. Erasmus +. https://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.10241

Gorter, D. &amp; Cenoz, J. (2024). ''A Panorama of Linguistic Landscape Studies''. Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800417151

Brown, K. D. (2005). Estonian schoolscapes and the marginalization of regional identity in education. European Education, 37(3), 78–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108669771.034 Published online by Cambridge University Press 

Brown, K. D. (2012). The linguistic landscape of educational spaces: Language revital- ization and schools in southeastern Estonia. In D. Gorter, H. F. Marten, &amp; L. Van Mensel, eds., Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape (pp. 281–298). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 281–98. 

Brown, K. D. (2018). Shifts and stability in schoolscapes: Diachronic considerations of southeastern Estonian schools. Linguistics and Education, 44, 12–19. 

Malinowski, D., Maxim, H., &amp; Dubreil, S. (Eds.). (2020). ''Language teaching in the linguistic landscape.'' ''Mobilizing pedagogy in public space''. Springer.  http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55761-4

Malinowski, D. (2015). Opening spaces of learning in the linguistic landscape. ''Linguistic Landscape 1'' (1), 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1075/ll.1.1-2.06mal

Menken, K., Pérez Rosario, V., &amp; Guzmán Valerio, L. A. (2018). Increasing multilingualism in schoolscapes. New scenery and language education policies. ''Linguistic Landscape: An International Journal, 4(2), 101–27.''

Shohamy, E. (2017). Linguistic landscape: Interpreting and expanding lan- guage diversities. In A. De Fina, D. Ikizoglu, &amp; J. Wegner, (eds.), ''Diversity and Super-Diversity: Sociocultural Linguistic Perspectives.'' Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, pp. 37–63.

Szabó, T. P. (2015). The management of diversity in schoolscapes: An analy- sis of Hungarian practices. A''pples – Journal of Applied Language Studies, 9''(1), 23–51 

Vetter E. (2022). Linguistic Landscapes in School. In: Stavans A, Jessner U, eds. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Childhood Multilingualism''. Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press; 2022:623-648. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-childhood-multilingualism/linguistic-landscapes-in-school/81EE504F04C963390CE1F8C86DC290BF

==Credits==
This resource has been created by [[User:Projet PEP|Projet PEP]] ([[User talk:Projet PEP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Projet PEP|contribs]]) (Erasmus+ project, co-financed by the European Commission) : 

* Anastasia Gkaintartzi (University of Thessaly)
* Eva Vetter (Universität Wien)
* Paulina Wagner (Universität Wien)

[[Portal: Plurilingual education]]

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    <title>Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs</title>
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      <text bytes="23337" sha1="76aqhwjakntxegt4mhre6tu2i6m1wry" xml:space="preserve">[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD, GBR, USA, SGP).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1348–1807, Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, and Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

:''I am entitled to my [[Wiktionary:cockamamie|cockamamie]] ideas, and you are entitled to yours.''&lt;ref&gt;Humor is important but must be offered in a way that does not offend others. If others are offended, they may be less interested in dialogue. The term &quot;cockamamie&quot; is used here, hoping that this style of [[w:Self-deprecation|self-deprecation]] might be more inviting for dialogue.&lt;/ref&gt; 

:This book invites you to improve your understanding of the role of the media in society and help you be more effective in talking with others and building consensus for action on the issues that most concern you. You are also invited to help improve this chapter and book. 

==Introduction== 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) suggest that the stability of poverty and the [[w:Malthusianism|Malthusian trap]] in hierarchical societies ''prior'' to the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] was enforced by &quot;societies of orders&quot; consisting of those who (1) fought, (2) prayed, and (3) worked. Those who prayed convinced those who worked to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced so those who prayed and fought could live in leisure and opulence. This seems to describe the construction of the pyramids in Egypt and the cathedrals, castles and manor homes that dot Europe today.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the reign of [[w:James VI and I|King James of the King James bible]] pamphlets and newspapers began to compete with the church for helping peasants understand their role in society. That contributed to the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651) during which James' son, [[w: Charles I of England|Charles I]], was decapitated for abuse of power. The new government allowed enough commoners to become entrepreneurs that it increased the rate of economic growth visible in Figure 1. 

The number of independent media organizations per million population continued to grow, especially in the US where they were subsidized by the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792, [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John|until the mid nineteenth century]], when high-speed rotary presses substantially reduced the per copy cost of printing while increasing the cost of starting a newspaper.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995); John and Silberstein-Loeb (2015).&lt;/ref&gt; That contributed to the expansion of voting rights, in the US officially to all adults by 1920. During the [[w:Great Depression|Great Depression]] with over 20 percent of the US workforce unemployed, conservative arguments that blamed the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers. That helped US President [[w:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin Roosevelt]] get the political support needed for his [[w:New Deal|New Deal]] program and [[The Media, the Great Depression, and our future|wage and price controls that enabled unprecedented economic growth]] during [[w:World War II|World War II]] by dramatically limiting price gouging that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth during previous major wars in US history. 

However, the consolidation of ownership of the major media since World War II limited the increases in inequality and then reversed them starting around the time that [[w:Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan]] became president of the US in 1981.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Johnson (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[w:Great Recession|Great Recession]] (2007-2009) Fox featured &quot;experts&quot; who insisted that Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal made the Great Depression ''worse'', not better. That editorial distortion helped prevent the US Congress from protecting the victims of [[w:Stated income loan|liar loans]]. But the money had to be injected back into the economy, so the US Congress funded bonuses of over a million dollars each to over 5,000 finance industry leaders, some of whom should have been in prison, according to Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, ch. 3), who shared the 2024 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:James A. Robinson|James A. Robinson]]. A major contributor to the Great Recession has reportedly been the success of the finance industry in getting sufficient control of the major media that they have been able to dramatically reduce financial regulation codified in the [[w:Glass–Steagall legislation|Glass–Steagall legislation]] of 1933 and block other reforms like a [[w:Tobin tax|Tobin tax]] to reduce market swings from extremely short term trading, an idea for which [[w:James Tobin|James Tobin]] won the [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|1981 Nobel memorial prize in economics]]. 

You, dear reader, are invited to offer contrary evidence or questions regarding the evidence presented here. This chapter identifies the leading countries in [[w:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita for each year]] in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]], which collates [[w:Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita and population estimates for years 1 [[w:Common Era|CE]] to the present from all credible sources the project team has found. The MaddisonData package for R makes these data available as an R data object with companion functions to facilitate computing the leaders for each year with optional exclusions to facilitate identifying the technology leaders and with a function ggplotPath to make it relatively easy to plot and annotate the image as desired.&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025).&lt;/ref&gt; The analysis then narrows the focus to apparent technology leaders since 1349, when the data identify Holland as the leader. This analysis identifies 11 different countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year. However, only 5 lead for more than 10 years: Holland (NLD), England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom (GBR), Australia (AUS), the United States (USA), and Singapore (SGP).&lt;ref&gt;The population of [[w:Singapore|Singapore]] is roughly 6 million. If you think that's too small to be included in this analysis, you can either ignore it or, better, repeat this analysis without it. A tutorial on how to do that using free and open-source software is available in [[Most productive countries since 1349#Appendix. Companion R Markdown vignette|an R Markdown vignette]] supplied as an appendix to the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Most productive countries since 1349]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Australia led for only 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891 as the US was overtaking the UK as the technology leader. A plot of the leaders is then made without Australia, because its inclusion would seem to add more complexity than clarity to the message. That display is a [[w:Semi-log|semilog]] plot, because it makes a constant percentage increase look like a straight line. The resulting plot of GDP per capita suggests the Industrial Revolution began in England around 1649 when King Charles I was beheaded.

== World leaders in GDP per capita ==

Table 1 lists all the countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year in MaddisonData. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ ''Table 1. all the countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year in the MaddisonData.'' 
|-
! rowspan=2 | country !! rowspan=2 | ISO !! colspan=2 | year !! rowspan=2 | n years !! rowspan=2 | percent of years 
|-
! begin !! end  
|-
| [[w:Ancient Rome|Italy (ancient Rome)]] 
| ITA || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1 || 1501 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 3 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 0.2% 
|- 
| [[w:Iraq|Iraq]] || IRQ || style=&quot;text-align:right | 730 || 1000 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 271 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:China|China]] || CHN  || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1090 || 1150 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 61 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:England|England]] / [[w:Great Britain|Great Britain]] / [[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] || GBR || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1252 || 1898 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 91 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 14% 
|-
| [[w:France|France]] || FRA || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1276 || 1374 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 19 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 19% 
|- 
| [[w:Spain|Spain]] || ESP || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1278 || 1348 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 50 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 70% 
|- 
| [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] || SWE || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1304 || 1509 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 13 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 6%
|- 
| [[w:Holland|Holland]] / [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] || NLD || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1349 || 1807 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 447 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 97%
|- 
| [[w:Belgium|Belgium]] || BEL || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1500 || 1500 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:Australia|Australia]] || AUS || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1853 || 1891 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 17 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 44%
|- 
| [[w:New Zealand|New Zealand]] || NZL || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1873 || 1874 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|-
| [[w:United States|United States]] || USA || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1882 || 1990 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 58 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 53%
|- 
| [[w:Switzerland|Switzerland]] || CHE || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1931 || 1934 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 4 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:Qatar|Qatar]] || QAT || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1950 || 2022 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 45 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 62%
|- 
| [[w:Kuwait|Kuwait]] || KWT || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1953 || 1957 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100% 
|-
|[[w:United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]] || ARE || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1965 || 1984 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 25%
|- 
| [[w:Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] || LUX || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1991 || 1995 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:Norway|Norway]] || NOR || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1996 || 2002 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 7 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100% 
|} 

For simplicity, we focus on the data since 1349, when Holland had the highest GDP per capita, omitting Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), United Arab Emirates (ARE), and Norway (NOR), whose wealth may be more due to petroleum than to broad technology leadership. We also delete Luxenbourg (LUX), whose population is under a million and therefore may be too small to use for general conclusions about technology leadership. Table 2 is similar to Table 1 with these adjustments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ ''Table 2. Highest GDP per capita among broad-based economies since 1349.'' 
|-
! rowspan=2 | country !! rowspan=2 | ISO !! colspan=2 | year !! rowspan=2 | n years !! rowspan=2 | percent of years 
|-
! begin !! end  
|- 
| [[w:Holland|Holland]] / [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] || NLD || 1349 || 1807 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 447 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 97%
|- 
| [[w:France|France]] || FRA || 1357 || 1374 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 7 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 39% 
|- 
| [[w:Italy|Italy]] || ITA || 1451 || 1501 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 4%
|- 
| [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] || SWE || 1468 || 1509 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5%
|- 
| [[w:Belgium|Belgium]] || BEL || 1500 || 1500 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:England|England]] / [[w:Great Britain|Great Britain]] / [[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] || GBR || 1808 || 1898 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 67 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 74% 
|- 
| [[w:Australia|Australia]] || AUS || 1853 || 1891 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 17 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 44%
|- 
| [[w:New Zealand|New Zealand]] || NZL || 1873 || 1874 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:United States|United States]] || USA || 1882 || 2005 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 107 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 86% 
|- 
| [[w:Switzerland|Switzerland]] || CHE || 1931 || 2009 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 9 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 11%
|- 
| [[w:Singapore|Singapore]] || SGP || 2010 || 2022 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 13 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|}

Singapore (SGP) has replaced Norway as the current leader, according to the Maddison project data. The Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;accessed 2025-01-01&lt;/ref&gt; notes that data from the US [[w:Central Intelligence Agency|Central Intelligence Agency]] report GDP per capita numbers for [[w:Monaco| Monaco]] (MCO) and [[w:Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]] (LIE) higher than for Singapore and Norway. However, they are tiny countries with populations roughly 40,000 each and are not included in MaddisonData. 

[[w:Holland|Holland]] (NLD) was the leader for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, according to MaddisonData. Then between 1807 and 1808, GDP per capita for NLD fell by 32 percent -- almost a third. That change can be attributed at least in part to a change in the definition of &quot;NLD&quot;: Up to 1807, NLD represented Holland, per van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012). Beginning in 1808, the data are for the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]], per Smits et al. (2000), of which Holland is only part. Those years were also during the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]], and the Netherlands were part of France for part of that period. To understand this drop better, we would need to consult experts on that history.   

After that change, Holland / the Netherlands was replaced as the leader in GDP per capita by England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom (GBR), which led for 74 percent of the 91 years between 1808 and 1898. Then the US led for 84 percent of the years between 1882 and 1990 with Australia (AUS), New Zealand (NZL) and Switzerland (CHE) leading for the remaining 16 percent of those years. Luxembourg (LUX) led between 1991 and 2008, then Switzerland (CHE) led for 2009, then Singapore (SGP) between 2010 and 2022. 

The next section discusses a plot of the data for NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP. Others countries are omitted, because their leadership was so short, according to these data, that including them might add more complexity than information and make it harder to understand the big picture.

== Plot broad-based leaders == 

Figure 1 is a [[w:Semi-log|semilog]] plot of GDP per capita for NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP between 1349 and 2022. A semilog plot like this makes a constant percentage increase appear as a straight line. Annotations document some of the potentially most important events during this period: 
* The orange line represents Holland through 1807 and the Netherlands starting in 1808. 
* The English Civil War (1642-1652), during which King Charles I was decapitated (1649). 
* The War of 1912 (1812-1815). 
* The American Civil War (1861-1865). 
* [[w:World War I|WW1]] (1914-1918). 
* The presidency of Herbert Hoover (1929-1933). 
* The presidency of Franklin Roosevelt (1933-1945). 
* [[w:World War II|WW2]] (1939-1945). 
* The presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989). 
* The first presidency of Donald Trump (2017-2021). 
* The presidency of Joe Biden (2021-2025). 

The orange NLD line includes a drop of 32 percent between 1807 and 1808 as the data changed from representing only Holland to representing the Netherlands, as mentioned above. 

A key feature of a semilog plot is that a constant percentage increase appears as a straight line with the slope being proportional to the rate of growth. A fairly obvious feature of Figure 1 is that GDP per capita started increasing for England very  close to 1649, which King Charles I lost his head. England combined with Scotland to become Great Britain by the [[w:Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union of 1707]] during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Ann]], which was accompanied by economic turbulence visible in Figure 1. After she died, the economy began growing again but at a slower rate. Great Britain merged with Ireland by the [[w:Acts of Union 1800|Acts of Union of 1800]] to become the United Kingdom (UK) during the reign of George III. The creation of the UK was quickly followed by the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (1803-1815), which included the [[w:War of 1812|War of 1812]], which is marked on this plot. Those wars were followed by a brief decline in the UK GDP per capita, but it quickly started growing again at a faster rate. Both World Wars had negative impacts on the UK economy, visible in Figure 1. 

GDP per capita for the US started well below that of the UK, to the extent that the Maddison data are accurate, but grew faster and overtook the UK between 1882 and 1898, according to Table 2 above. The most spectacular features in Figure 1 are the unprecedented decline of the US economy during the administration of Herbert Hoover followed an even more unprecedented increase during the administration of FDR. 

The rate of growth in GDP per capita in the US is visibly slowing before Singapore takes the lead at the beginning of the Great Recession. [[w:Thomas Piketty|Thomas Piketty]], the world's leading expert on inequality, has attributed that slowing of the US economy to the increase in inequality since Reagan became US president in 1981, documented in Figures 6 and 7 of the next chapter of this book on, &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot;. That chapter includes a section on the &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future#Role of the media|Role of the media]]&quot;, which cites research suggesting that both the increase in inequality and the slowing of the rate of economic growth can be attributed to the increased concentration of ownership of the major media including for-profit social media, which make money increasing political polarization and violence.

== Caveat ==

Lindert and Williamson insist that Maddison's data are deficient, at least regarding the relative position of the 13 colonies that became the US: {{quote| 

American world leadership in income per person has waxed and waned for centuries.
Before the twentieth century, the period in which Americans most clearly led Britain and all of western Europe in purchasing power per capita was during colonial times—that is, when North Americans were still British. They were already ahead by the late seventeenth century. America lost that lead in the Revolutionary War and the Articles of Confederation years, gained it back by 1860, lost most of it again in the Civil War decade, gained it back once more by 1900, and briefly lost it again in the Great Depression of the 1930s. ''Angus Maddison’s claim that American income per capita did not catch up to that of Britain until the start of the twentieth century seems to be off the mark by at least two centuries.''

Over the whole span of over 360 years since the mid-seventeenth century, America’s income advantage over Britain has not increased and may have decreased slightly. The only historical moment in which the United States soared far ahead of the rest of the world in average income came at the end of World War II. Since then, western Europe and Japan have been growing faster than the United States in terms of incomes per person. (emphasis added.)&lt;ref&gt;Lindert and Williamson (2016, pp. 8-9).&lt;/ref&gt;}}

This challenge to the numbers in the current analysis is vital for understanding the impact of armed conflict on the economy but may be irrelevant to the main point of this book, that media play a major role in helping humans understand what they should do to advance their interests.

== Exercise ==

Share with others your thoughts on the issues raised in this discussion and summarize those discussions on the &quot;Discuss&quot; page associated with this chapter. Focus especially on how you managed your emotions and your relationships with the humans with whom you spoke as well as the strengths and weaknesses in the content of this chapter, challenges that should be addressed, and suggestions for improvement. 

== See also ==

* [[Most productive countries since 1349]]
* [[The Media, the Great Depression, and our future]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* [[d: Q125292212|Daron Acemoğlu and Simon Johnson (2023) ''Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity'' (PublicAffairs)]]. 
* {{cite Q|Q126723821}}&lt;!--|Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41.--&gt;
* {{cite Q|Q57945943}}&lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;

* [[d:Q137660377|Susan B. Carter, S. S. Gartner, M. R. Haineset (2006) ''Historical Statistics of the United States: Earliest Time to the Present'' (Cambridge University Press)]]. 

* [[d:Q137660514|Spencer Graves (2025-11-25) &quot;MaddisonData: Maddison Project Data&quot; software available from the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) and GitHub]]. 

* [[d:Q54641943|Richard R. John (1995) ''Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse'' (Harvard University Press)]]. 

* [[d:Q131468166|Richard R. John; Jonathan Silberstein-Loeb, eds. (2015) ''Making News: The Political Economy of Journalism in Britain and America from the Glorious Revolution to the Internet'' (Oxford University Press)]].

* [[d:Q137669937|John J. McCusker (2006) &quot;Colonial Statistics&quot;, Carter et al. (2006, V-671)]].  

* [[d:Q135527962|Reece Peck (2016) &quot;Usurping the usable past: How Fox News remembered the Great Depression during the Great Recession&quot;, ''Journalism'', 18(6)]].

* [[d:Q55878109|W. Scheidel and S. J. Friesen (2009) &quot;The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire&quot;, ''Journal of Roman Studies'', 99, pp. 61–91]]. 

* {{cite Q|Q137669960}}&lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;

* {{cite Q|Q137669987}}&lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' (World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;

* [[d: Q137670038|R. Sutch (2006). National Income and Product. Carter et al. (2006, III-23-25)]].

* {{cite Q|Q137670058}}&lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;

[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Media Literacy and You]]
&lt;!--
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review
--&gt;</text>
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      <comment>/* Video 3 */ exaggerated self-policing can be harmful to individuals and Wikiversity at large</comment>
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      <text bytes="6652" sha1="qxl8l0ky33ezosicb0kxs3b77tralcd" xml:space="preserve">{{AI-generated}}

== What {{tl|AI-generated}} means on this page ==

It means that the content on this page may be generated in the future. This is merely to &quot;future-proof&quot; this page as it may be assumed it is inevitable that one day even the content might be auto-generated and this notice existing might help students/contributors to let them know that there is a current &quot;influence&quot; by &quot;AI programs&quot; on this page, if not by content at least by influencing decisions.

If any content is generated contributors are encouraged to edit this section and make the appropriate changes to let students know that there has been a change.

What it means for now is that the contributors to this page are encouraged to interact with an &quot;AI&quot;/LLM in regards to 
* decision-making on what to focus on next that this page may need
* brainstorming with the &quot;AI program&quot; of their choice regarding what to contribute next
* ask &quot;AI program&quot; for advice on how to contribute video notes in a [[Wikiversity:Research ethics]]-way and a &quot;Do no harm&quot;/&quot;Primum non nocere&quot; way.

== Original Intent ==

The intent for this page is for it to be used to develop a 'method' for working with &quot;materials&quot; like video interviews of famous people or video interviews/content of volunteers who sign up for [[Draft:The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea]].

== Contributor/Student Questions ==

If a contributor doesn't feel to edit this page directly but the contributor/student wants to ask a question to encourage development or they have any other question, this section is for that. '''Remember: No question is stupid!'''

== Beginning work - Video notes adhering to &quot;Do no harm&quot;/&quot;Primum non nocere&quot; ==

This is the section for main content for this page which is video notes. The way one makes video notes on this page may set the example for the method that will be developed in the future.

Goal is to treat famous people like any other people: like human beings. How one expresses oneself is very important and the original creator of this page may not be the best in that area, thus '''feel free to be bold and edit this page'''.

The start is usually the hardest and based on the idea name one can focus on any famous person related to the words 
* draft
* neurodiversity
* inspiration
* idea

This is how this start is made. This idea may be lacking but one starts making mistakes, then later we learn how to do it better and then we fix those mistakes.

== Choosing video material ==

Video notes can wait. Let's focus first on choosing video material.

Why can video notes wait? The first task is choosing the video material and explaining why the specific material was chosen. It may not always be easy to take a decision and ie. ChatGPT or &quot;AI Mode&quot; can sometimes be used to make it easier to just choose something so one can focus on work and less on decisions. For some students/contributors that may be helpful.

The video notes though may be done step by step, one chooses a video material, explains the reasoning behind it and then focuses on working on the video notes in a &quot;Do no harm&quot; manner.

First video material to be chosen is an interview or a &quot;comedy show&quot; with Stephen Colbert with Tom Hanks as guest. &quot;Video 1&quot;.

=== Video 1 ===

YouTube video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=DgYXYh-4uuc
Video length: 24m 31s.
Full title: 
 Tom Hanks On Life During WWII, His Favorite Tom Hanks Movie Moments, And Why Almond Milk Isn't Real
By YouTube channel:
 @ColbertLateShow

First video notes will follow.

Notes why this video may be &quot;inappropriate&quot;. Many clips show in the middle of the video, that may be an unnecessary distraction. Searching for a video without distractions may be desirable.

=== Video 2 ===

YouTube video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8zfsf4azLo
Video length: 46m 9s.
Full title:
 Taylor Swift &amp; Martin McDonagh | Directors on Directors
By YouTube channel:
 @variety

Notes on why another video may be a better choice: They jump to clips in the middle of the interview. That may be distracting.

=== Video 3 ===

Video 3 was chosen without the use of AI Mode or any LLM, but was based on the choice of Tom Hanks from video 1.

YouTube video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=lVzxRVxIaxQ
Video length: 1h 42m 55s.
Full title:
 TOM HANKS Reveals The 'Countenance Theory' That CHANGED His Acting Career
By YouTube channel:
 @JayShettyPodcast.

=== Video 4 ===

YouTube video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=0OLBhkKLmUY
Video length: 50m 5s.
Full title:
 Robert Downey Jr. &amp; Mark Ruffalo | Actors on Actors
By YouTube channel:
 @variety

=== People chosen ===

This section could be updated less. Duplicating data/information is not desirable.

Do no harm will be challenging but is a requirement. Video notes must be respectful and not harm the individual. 

'''For that to be achieved if two or more individuals are compared they must not have been in a feud or in a conflict with each other'''.
'''If they weren't in a feud and they are in the future, the notes of the most recent version must be removed/modified regarding any comparisons of currently feuding individuals.'''

Taylor Swift is associated with the word ''draft'' in that she has been open in videos about her music creation process.

That makes this project focus on Taylor Swift as 1st person being added regarding 'video notes'. A project has to start somewhere.

This must be done to ensure the &quot;Do no harm&quot; requirement is met for this project.

# Taylor Swift&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[User:ThinkingScience#Taylor_Swift|1]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Tom Hanks&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[User:ThinkingScience#Tom_Hanks|2]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Stephen Colbert&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[User:Dekatriofovia#Stephen_Colbert|3]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

== How the Linking References System works ==

ie. [1], [2] etc.

This section may be superfluous once a better system has replaced this.

Purpose: teach the students/contributors how to link to a central place where human generated inputs are made and &quot;AI-generated&quot; outputs results are made.

When you see ie. a [1] that means that you can find that [1] input made by a human and output most probably made by a an &quot;AI program&quot; or Large Language Model here if you look hard enough. Otherwise please submit feedback for how the user experience was. Here's the page: [[Draft:The_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea/AI_Prompt_History_for_Questions#&quot;Reference_Coding&quot;]]

=== References/in-Wikiversity-Wikilinks ===

'''Most importantly''':

All in-Wikiversity references like ie. [1] can be found at [[Draft:The_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea/AI_Prompt_History_for_Questions#&quot;Reference_Coding&quot;]]

[2] Can be found at [[Draft:The_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea/AI_Prompt_History_for_Questions#Reference_3]]</text>
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    <title>User:Alandmanson/Rangelands and insects</title>
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      <comment>Cats and insect decline</comment>
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      <text bytes="4383" sha1="ev40gmae049ddu13iedthnrvrxnejwb" xml:space="preserve">== Are changes in southern African rangelands contributing to the insect apocalypse? ==
Rangeland scientists have long considered threats to biodiversity, but the consistent decline in insect biomass has only become a significant field of study in recent years. Estimates suggest that insect populations are shrinking at rates of between one and two percent annually in many areas (Wagner et al., 2021).&lt;br&gt;

Why is there a decline in insect abundance? In places like the grassland biome of southern Africa, the reasons are clear – large areas have been converted to crop, timber, or ornamental production; these are systems designed to maximize productivity for human use – this has obviously resulted in systems that minimize insect productivity. Of course, there is a complex interplay of many reasons; key drivers include habitat destruction and fragmentation, agricultural intensification (including widespread pesticide use), climate change (altered temperature and rainfall patterns), light pollution, chemical pollution, and invasive species (Halsch et al., 2025).&lt;br&gt;

Rangelands comprise the home of many insects; increased pressure from humans and their livestock has had widespread effects on rangelands:
*Soil loss – many insects use topsoil for at least part of their life cycle, including termites and ants, the dominant forms of terrestrial biomass.
*Drier topsoils as a result of the loss of vegetative cover, both live aerial cover and dead plant (mostly leaf) matter.
*Loss of wetlands and reduced water quality – many insects evolved to spend at least part of their lives in streams, rivers, or other wetlands; most of these habitats have been transformed in the last 50 years.
*Declining quality of food for insect herbivores – rangelands appear resilient, but management for livestock production invariably changes species composition, often with a loss of perennial forbs and grass species.&lt;br&gt;

Loss of consistent sources of high-quality insect food is, however, not confined to local effects. In a groundbreaking study at the Konza Prairie Long Term Ecological Research Site, Welti et al. (2020) found that grasshopper biomass fluctuates with herbage quality, and that nutrient dilution appears to be causing a long-term decline in grasshoppers. This nutrient dilution is linked to CO2 fertilization, which increases plant production (when rainfall is sufficient) and lowers the concentrations of many nutrients in plant material (Kaspari &amp; Welti, 2024).

Insect decline is probably already affecting insectivores; small mammals, Botha’s Lark, Yellow-breasted Pipit and small raptors come to mind. Feedback effects on plant species are also likely as specialist herbivores are affected differently.&lt;br&gt;
 
So the warning signs are clear, and it seems unlikely that effective action to reverse the loss of insect biomass is possible in these times, where even responses to the needs and wants of the majority of our own species appear inadequate.&lt;br&gt;'

== Cats and insect decline ==
[https://theconversation.com/beyond-birds-and-mice-free-ranging-cats-eat-a-surprising-number-of-insects-285094 Free‑ranging cats eat a surprising number of insects]

== References ==
Halsch, C. A., Elphick, C. S., Bahlai, C. A., Forister, M. L., Wagner, D. L., Ware, J. L., &amp; Grames, E. M. (2025). Meta-synthesis reveals interconnections among apparent drivers of insect biodiversity loss. BioScience, biaf034. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biaf034&lt;br&gt;
Kaspari, M., &amp; Welti, E. A. (2024). Nutrient dilution and the future of herbivore populations. Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution, 39(9), 809-820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2025.02.011&lt;br&gt;
Kaspari, M., &amp; Welti, E. A. (2025). Building plant diversity into mechanisms of nutrient dilution. Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10640767&lt;br&gt;
Wagner, D. L., Grames, E. M., Forister, M. L., Berenbaum, M. R., &amp; Stopak, D. (2021). Insect decline in the Anthropocene: Death by a thousand cuts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(2), e2023989118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023989118&lt;br&gt;
Welti, E. A., Roeder, K. A., De Beurs, K. M., Joern, A., &amp; Kaspari, M. (2020). Nutrient dilution and climate cycles underlie declines in a dominant insect herbivore. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(13), 7271-7275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2025.02.011&lt;br&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="45407" sha1="468pd4v43qlg9hcjj2k49z14mxz4w4k" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Cutting-board-kitchen-prepping-food.webp|thumb|Cutting with paring knife and curled fingers|left]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The left lengthwise cut and unsuitable for juicing, the right widthwise cut is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
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'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
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'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

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'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
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'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Neoroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>468pd4v43qlg9hcjj2k49z14mxz4w4k</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2817941</id>
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        <username>Sabbier</username>
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      <text bytes="45520" sha1="53t2qnpmzupiia8fmzpw97lvotga86b" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks for uploading this picture though.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
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'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
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'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

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'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
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'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Neoroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
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'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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      <text bytes="48298" sha1="4gm47hcntp20qazlgtzcpb75osjz55n" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Types of alcohol from [[wikipedia:Ethanol_fermentation|Ethanol fermentation]] wiki page Alcohol products
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# References
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide
### Available on Internet Archive
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer (Grains) ====
Beer is made from

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation and Skills
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks for uploading this picture though.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open). 
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Neoroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

= Hospitality =

# Steps of Service
# Serving Drinks to People
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality</text>
      <sha1>4gm47hcntp20qazlgtzcpb75osjz55n</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817943</id>
      <parentid>2817942</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-08T20:53:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sabbier</username>
        <id>3098112</id>
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      <text bytes="48377" sha1="pz518ll1l6uj3jmy71ddy3d7fgrdo02" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' 
[[File:Beer_and_wine.jpg|thumb|Low-ABV drinks like beer and wine.]]

==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink brewed from various grains.  

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

==== Liqueurs ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation and Skills
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks for uploading this picture though.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open). 
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

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'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Neoroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

= Hospitality =

# Steps of Service
# Serving Drinks to People
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality</text>
      <sha1>pz518ll1l6uj3jmy71ddy3d7fgrdo02</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817947</id>
      <parentid>2817943</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-08T22:55:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sabbier</username>
        <id>3098112</id>
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      <text bytes="49402" sha1="76cc2hf8xv8rtj43sladar8c05un2ma" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* Pale Ale - https://www.thebeerstore.ca/articles/beer-types-and-styles
* Indian Pale Ale (IPA)
* Porter
* Stout
* Wheat Beer
* Lager
* Pilsner
* Sour Beer
* Light Beer

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

==== Liqueurs ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation and Skills
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks for uploading this picture though.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open). 
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
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'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
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'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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= Hospitality =

# Steps of Service
# Serving Drinks to People
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality</text>
      <sha1>76cc2hf8xv8rtj43sladar8c05un2ma</sha1>
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      <text bytes="50405" sha1="6r4mugijzksx82m6ejr83spsbkqsa65" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* Lager - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular.
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful.
* Ales - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods.
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite.
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal.
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor.
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with a low

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

==== Liqueurs ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation and Skills
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks for uploading this picture though.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open). 
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

= Hospitality =

# Steps of Service
# Serving Drinks to People
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality</text>
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      <text bytes="50846" sha1="312p9sf3128k9frnzb1zcpx8z5w1ag5" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. https://www.totalwine.com/search/all?text=porter
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers.

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
The first spirit on this list, [[wikipedia:Brandy|brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====

==== Liqueurs ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation and Skills
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks for uploading this picture though.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open). 
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Negroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

= Hospitality =

# Steps of Service
# Serving Drinks to People
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality</text>
      <sha1>312p9sf3128k9frnzb1zcpx8z5w1ag5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2817957</id>
      <parentid>2817954</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-09T01:00:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sabbier</username>
        <id>3098112</id>
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      <text bytes="50991" sha1="5t48i7oo8sv5fks3cqomgudncxy4flw" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add peels/twists to Preparation
# Add liqueurs to Types of Alcohol

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for anyone wanting to learn the trade of bartending, whether that be for a job or at home. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality and Industry

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10oz of liquid.)
#Bottle Spout
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====

==== Gin ====

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====

==== Rum ====

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Sake ====

==== Whiskey ====

==== Liqueurs ====

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Preparation and Skills
# Glasses
# All the basic recipes
# Taxonomy of cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks for uploading this picture though.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open). 
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

== Glassware ==
The last bit of knowledge you need before making cocktails is about the glasses they come in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses. When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. That being said, 20 is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple.

=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Citron Vodka

⅓ oz fresh lime juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz cranberry juice cocktail

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

2 oz Tequilla

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
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'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

2 oz Whiskey

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
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'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz vodka

1/2 oz fresh lime juice

3 oz ginger beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

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'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz fresh lime juice

2 tsp sugar

1 1/2 oz white rum

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
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'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1 1/2 oz Malibu Rum

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

2 oz Vodka

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

2 oz Whiskey

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
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'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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= Hospitality =

# Steps of Service
# Serving Drinks to People
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality</text>
      <sha1>5t48i7oo8sv5fks3cqomgudncxy4flw</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Physics:Quantum Explanation of Energy</title>
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      <text bytes="24358" sha1="46g09wug0jytnyasm2pfevnro4b4vwl" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Explanation of energy, mass, photons, and relativistic energy in quantum physics}}
[[File:Quantum_BookII_photon_web.jpg|thumb|430px|Photon as a carrier of electromagnetic energy.]]
'''Quantum explanation of energy''' explains how energy is used in quantum and relativistic physics. It starts from a common puzzle: if light has no rest mass, how can it still heat matter, push on a mirror, eject an electron, or fall into a black hole? The answer is that energy is not a substance stored inside things. It is a conserved quantity used to track what a physical system can do, how it can change, and how it can exchange motion, radiation, binding, and field excitations with other systems.

The familiar formula &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt; is therefore only one part of the story. A body with rest mass has rest energy, but a photon has no rest mass and still carries energy and momentum. This page separates three ideas that are often blurred together: rest mass, total energy, and transported energy. It then connects those ideas to photons, atomic transitions, nuclear binding, radiation pressure, gravity, black holes, and the Hamiltonian description of quantum time evolution.&lt;ref name=&quot;einstein1905&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsQM&quot; /&gt;


== Etymology and discovery ==
The word ''energy'' comes from Greek roots associated with activity or work, but its modern physical meaning was sharpened through mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, relativity, and quantum theory. The biographical anchor here is [[Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]], because the relation between mass and energy became central after special relativity, while the photon picture made light a carrier of discrete energy quanta.&lt;ref name=&quot;einstein1905&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |title=Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content? |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=18 |pages=639-641 |year=1905 |doi=10.1002/andp.19053231314}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;planck1901&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Planck |first=Max |title=On the law of distribution of energy in the normal spectrum |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=4 |pages=553-563 |year=1901 |doi=10.1002/andp.19013090310}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For this page the important point is that ''energy'' is not identical with ordinary rest mass. Rest mass is one contribution to energy, but radiation, fields, binding, motion, pressure, and curvature can all enter the bookkeeping of physical systems. That broader meaning is why energy is better treated as a conserved physical quantity assigned to a physical state than as a substance hidden inside matter.&lt;ref name=&quot;noether1918&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Noether |first=Emmy |title=Invariante Variationsprobleme |journal=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse |year=1918 |pages=235-257 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Physical content ==
The popular formula &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt; is the rest-energy relation for a body in its own rest frame. It says that a body with invariant mass &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; has rest energy &lt;math&gt;mc^2&lt;/math&gt;. It does not say that all energy must be rest mass, nor that a massless object has no energy.&lt;ref name=&quot;taylorWheeler&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Edwin F. |last2=Wheeler |first2=John Archibald |title=Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity |edition=2nd |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1992 |isbn=9780716723271}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Quantum energy mass shell diagram.png|thumb|430px|Energy, momentum, and invariant mass in special relativity. A photon has &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt; but still carries energy and momentum.]]

The more general special-relativistic relation is

:&lt;math&gt;E^2 = p^2c^2 + m^2c^4.&lt;/math&gt;

Here &lt;math&gt;E&lt;/math&gt; is total energy, &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is momentum, and &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; is invariant mass. If the object is at rest, then &lt;math&gt;p=0&lt;/math&gt; and the equation reduces to &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt;. If the object is a photon, then &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt;, and the equation becomes &lt;math&gt;E=pc&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsQM&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=David J. |title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics |edition=3rd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781107189638}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The distinction is not only a matter of vocabulary. A proton, an electron, and an atom have rest frames and invariant masses. A photon does not have a rest frame, so the rest-energy formula is not the right starting point for it. A beam of light can nevertheless deliver energy to a detector, exert radiation pressure, heat a surface, or increase the mass-energy of a system that absorbs it.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsEM&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=David J. |title=Introduction to Electrodynamics |edition=4th |publisher=Pearson |year=2013 |isbn=9780321856562}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A useful everyday analogy is bookkeeping rather than stuff. A bank account can change because cash is deposited, interest is added, debt is cancelled, or a transfer arrives. The account balance is real, but it is not made of only one kind of object. Energy works similarly in physics. Kinetic energy, rest energy, field energy, binding energy, heat, and radiation energy are different entries in one conservation law. The entries can be converted into one another only when the system, frame, boundary conditions, and allowed interactions are specified.

In this sense energy is closer to a disciplined accounting rule than to a material fluid. One should ask what system is being described, what can do work on what, what is allowed to cross the boundary, and which observer is measuring the motion. That is why the same word can describe a photon in flight, a bound electron in an atom, a heated box, a nuclear reaction, or a black hole absorbing radiation.

== Three meanings often confused ==
Three related uses of energy often get compressed into one slogan. The first is ''rest energy'', the energy associated with invariant mass in the rest frame of a massive object. The second is ''total energy'', which also includes motion and field contributions. The third is ''transported energy'', the energy carried from one system to another by particles, radiation, waves, or fields.

[[File:Quantum energy carriers diagram.png|thumb|430px|Energy can be carried as rest energy, kinetic energy, photon energy, field energy, binding energy, or stress-energy.]]

A plain-language way to put it is this: rest energy tells what a massive object contributes even when it is not moving; total energy tells what the whole physical state contributes in a chosen frame; transported energy tells what has moved from one system to another. A photon is the cleanest example of the third case. It is not massive matter, but it can still carry a definite amount of energy from an emitter to an absorber.

The distinction matters in quantum physics because the same experiment may involve all three. An atom has rest mass; its electron has kinetic and potential energy in a bound state; it may absorb a photon with energy &lt;math&gt;hf&lt;/math&gt;; and the transition changes the atom's internal energy. The observed spectral line is not a little piece of rest mass flying away. It is an exchange of quantized electromagnetic energy between a field and a material system.&lt;ref name=&quot;sakurai&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sakurai |first1=J. J. |last2=Napolitano |first2=Jim |title=Modern Quantum Mechanics |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9781108422413}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The same bookkeeping also appears in nuclear physics. A bound nucleus usually has a mass smaller than the sum of the separated protons and neutrons. The difference is the mass defect, and the corresponding energy &lt;math&gt;\Delta E=\Delta mc^2&lt;/math&gt; is the nuclear binding energy. In fusion or fission the products can be more tightly bound than the initial system, and the difference appears as kinetic energy, radiation, or excitation energy.&lt;ref name=&quot;kraneNuclear&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Krane |first=Kenneth S. |title=Introductory Nuclear Physics |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |year=1988 |isbn=9780471805533}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This example is important because it prevents a second common misunderstanding. Mass is not merely the amount of matter in a bag. The mass of a composite system includes the energy of its internal motion and interactions. A hot object has slightly more mass than the same object when cold; a charged capacitor has slightly more mass than when discharged; a nucleus has less mass than its separated constituents when binding energy has been released. These effects are normally tiny in everyday systems, but in nuclear reactions and astrophysics they become large enough to power stars and reactors.

== Photon as energy carrier ==
A photon is a quantum of the electromagnetic field. It has zero rest mass, but it carries energy and momentum. Its energy is proportional to its frequency,

:&lt;math&gt;E = hf = \hbar\omega,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is Planck's constant, &lt;math&gt;\hbar=h/(2\pi)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is frequency, and &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt; is angular frequency. A blue photon has more energy than a red photon; an X-ray or gamma-ray photon carries still more energy per quantum.

[[File:Quantum energy atomic transition diagram.png|thumb|430px|Atomic absorption and emission show energy exchange without treating the photon as a massive pellet.]]

The momentum of a photon is related to wavelength by

:&lt;math&gt;p = \frac{h}{\lambda} = \hbar k,&lt;/math&gt;

and because &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt;, the relativistic relation gives &lt;math&gt;E=pc&lt;/math&gt;. These equations explain why light can carry both energy and momentum without having rest mass. Radiation pressure, the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and photon recoil in atoms all depend on this point.&lt;ref name=&quot;compton1923&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Compton |first=Arthur H. |title=A quantum theory of the scattering of X-rays by light elements |journal=Physical Review |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=483-502 |year=1923 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.21.483}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This is why it is accurate to call a photon an energy carrier. It is not a little massive pellet. It is an excitation of a field with no rest frame, always moving at the invariant speed &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; in vacuum. Nevertheless it can heat matter, eject electrons, push on mirrors, transfer momentum, and be absorbed by a black hole.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsEM&quot; /&gt;

A simple laboratory example is the photoelectric effect. Light incident on a metal can eject electrons only if the photon energy exceeds a threshold associated with the material. Increasing the brightness increases the number of photons, while increasing the frequency increases the energy per photon. The experiment therefore separates intensity from photon energy and shows why the carrier picture is useful.&lt;ref name=&quot;einstein1905photo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Einstein |first=Albert |title=On a heuristic point of view concerning the production and transformation of light |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=17 |pages=132-148 |year=1905 |doi=10.1002/andp.19053220607}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Radiation pressure gives another connection with everyday physics. A mirror or solar sail can be pushed by light because reflected photons change momentum. The force is small for ordinary lamps but measurable in precision experiments and important for spacecraft concepts, laser cooling, optical tweezers, and stellar radiation fields. Again the key point is that zero rest mass does not mean zero physical effect.

== Mass, gravity, and energy bookkeeping ==
In general relativity, gravity couples not only to rest mass but to the stress-energy tensor: energy density, momentum density, pressure, stress, and flux. A box filled with light has greater total energy than the same empty box, and that total energy contributes to the gravitational mass of the system.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtw&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Misner |first1=Charles W. |last2=Thorne |first2=Kip S. |last3=Wheeler |first3=John Archibald |title=Gravitation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1973 |isbn=9780716703440}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Quantum energy hot cold photon box.png|thumb|430px|A hotter box of radiation has greater total energy. The photons have zero rest mass, but the system mass changes by &lt;math&gt;\Delta M=\Delta E/c^2&lt;/math&gt;.]]

The box example is conceptually useful because it removes the temptation to attach energy only to material particles. Imagine a perfectly reflecting box containing radiation. The individual photons have zero rest mass, but the box-plus-radiation system has a center-of-mass frame and a total energy. If more radiation is added, the total mass-energy of the closed system increases by &lt;math&gt;\Delta E/c^2&lt;/math&gt;. The same reasoning applies to heat stored in matter, chemical energy in a battery, or field energy in a capacitor, although the changes are usually far too small to weigh directly in ordinary laboratory conditions.

For black holes this bookkeeping matters. A photon falling into a black hole increases the black hole's mass-energy even though the photon has no rest mass. In Hawking radiation, the usual simplified story says that positive energy escapes to infinity while an effective negative-energy contribution crosses the horizon, reducing the black hole mass. The rigorous description uses quantum fields in curved spacetime rather than ordinary particles tunnelling out from inside the horizon.&lt;ref name=&quot;hawking1975&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Hawking |first=Stephen W. |title=Particle creation by black holes |journal=Communications in Mathematical Physics |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=199-220 |year=1975 |doi=10.1007/BF02345020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This also shows why the phrase ''energy without mass'' must be read carefully. It is correct if ''mass'' means rest mass, as in the photon case. It is incomplete if it ignores momentum, frequency, field state, or the system that carries the energy. Physics tracks those quantities together through the energy-momentum tensor and through conservation laws, not as separate substances.

== Quantum description ==
In quantum mechanics, energy is associated with the Hamiltonian, the operator that generates time evolution. Stationary states have definite energy eigenvalues, while more general states can be superpositions of different energies. Energy conservation follows from time-translation symmetry: if the laws do not change with time, a corresponding conserved energy exists.&lt;ref name=&quot;noether1918&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsQM&quot; /&gt;

[[File:Quantum energy hamiltonian time evolution.png|thumb|430px|The Hamiltonian is the energy operator that generates quantum time evolution.]]

For a state &lt;math&gt;|\psi(t)\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, time evolution is described by the Schrödinger equation,

:&lt;math&gt;i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t}|\psi(t)\rangle = \hat{H}|\psi(t)\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;|E_n\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is an energy eigenstate, then

:&lt;math&gt;\hat{H}|E_n\rangle = E_n|E_n\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

These equations connect energy with measurable spectra. The lines in atomic spectroscopy, the spacing of oscillator levels, and the energy thresholds in particle reactions are all examples of energy appearing as allowed outcomes or differences between allowed outcomes.&lt;ref name=&quot;sakurai&quot; /&gt;

An energy eigenstate does not have to look like a little object sitting still. In many systems it is a wavefunction or field mode with a fixed allowed energy. A superposition of two energy eigenstates evolves with relative phases that change in time. Those changing phases can produce beats, interference, transition probabilities, and oscillations. This is why energy in quantum mechanics is tied not only to measurement outcomes but also to the rhythm of time evolution.

The harmonic oscillator is the standard example. Its allowed energies are

:&lt;math&gt;E_n = \hbar\omega\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right),\qquad n=0,1,2,\ldots&lt;/math&gt;

The term &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}\hbar\omega&lt;/math&gt; is the zero-point energy. It means the lowest allowed state is not the classical state of zero motion and zero energy. The concept appears in molecular vibrations, phonons, quantum optics, and field modes. It must be handled carefully, because only energy differences or properly renormalized quantities are directly measurable in many contexts.&lt;ref name=&quot;casimir1948&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Casimir |first=H. B. G. |title=On the attraction between two perfectly conducting plates |journal=Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen |volume=51 |pages=793-795 |year=1948}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Energy exchange and measurement ==
Quantum measurements usually detect energy indirectly. A photodetector records an excitation; a calorimeter converts particle energy into heat, light, ionization, or charge; an atom changes level after absorbing or emitting radiation. In each case, the statement that a quantum system has exchanged energy depends on a calibrated interaction with a measuring device.

This is why photons are central examples. They connect frequency, field excitation, and detector response in one object. A single photon can be counted, but the energy it carries is not arbitrary: it is fixed by the mode frequency. Larger classical electromagnetic waves are then built from many such field excitations, or from quantum states whose average behaviour reproduces classical radiation.

Real instruments make the bookkeeping visible. In a gamma-ray detector, a photon may deposit energy through Compton scattering, pair production, or photoelectric absorption. In a particle calorimeter, a high-energy particle produces a shower whose total ionization or light output estimates the original energy. In an atomic clock, the frequency of radiation is locked to a transition energy. In a laser, stimulated emission turns stored atomic or material excitation into a coherent electromagnetic field.

The practical lesson is that energy is always inferred through interactions. A number printed on a detector display is not a direct look at an invisible fluid. It is the result of a model connecting a physical process, a calibration standard, and a conserved quantity. The detector does not see energy as a substance; it records ionization, heat, charge, light, or timing, and the physicist interprets that response through a tested model.

This is why energy links so many parts of physics. Quantum theory supplies the allowed transitions and probabilities. Relativity supplies the relation between energy, momentum, and mass. Thermodynamics describes the macroscopic accounting when many degrees of freedom are involved. The same conservation idea appears in each case, but the physical carrier can be very different.


== Worked examples ==
A first example is an atomic transition. Suppose an electron in an atom drops from an excited level to a lower level. The atom does not normally eject a piece of rest mass to account for the difference. Instead, the change in internal energy appears as a photon with energy &lt;math&gt;hf=E_i-E_f&lt;/math&gt;. The photon can later be absorbed by another atom or detector, raising a different system into an excited state. The same energy has moved from one quantum system to another, but the carrier has zero rest mass.&lt;ref name=&quot;sakurai&quot; /&gt;

A second example is nuclear binding. A helium nucleus has less mass than two isolated protons and two isolated neutrons. The missing mass is not an error in counting particles; it is the binding energy released when the bound state forms. In stars, fusion reactions exploit this difference. The products are more tightly bound, and the energy difference leaves as kinetic energy, photons, neutrinos, or thermal motion in the surrounding plasma.&lt;ref name=&quot;kraneNuclear&quot; /&gt;

A third example is radiation pressure. A beam of light falling on a mirror transfers momentum when photons are reflected. No photon rest mass is needed. The pressure follows from electromagnetic momentum and is tiny for everyday light sources, but it becomes useful in optical traps, laser cooling, precision interferometers, and solar-sail concepts. This is often the simplest real-world way to see that energy transport and momentum transport are linked.&lt;ref name=&quot;griffithsEM&quot; /&gt;

A fourth example is thermal radiation. A hot cavity contains more photon energy than a cold cavity. The photons are massless individually, but the closed cavity-plus-radiation system has a greater total mass-energy. This is the cleanest answer to the question whether energy without rest mass can gravitate: the system does not care that the carriers have &lt;math&gt;m=0&lt;/math&gt;; it responds to the total stress-energy content.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtw&quot; /&gt;

== Common misconceptions ==
One misconception is that &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt; means matter can simply be converted into energy as if energy were another kind of stuff. In actual reactions, conserved quantities still have to balance: electric charge, baryon number where applicable, lepton number where applicable, momentum, angular momentum, and energy. Pair annihilation, nuclear decay, and particle collisions do not erase bookkeeping; they move it into different fields and particles.

A second misconception is that a massless particle must be physically weak or unreal. A photon can ionize atoms, damage molecules, trigger a detector, transfer momentum to a mirror, or heat a surface. The absence of rest mass means there is no frame in which the photon is at rest. It does not mean the photon lacks energy, momentum, or measurable consequences.

A third misconception is that zero-point energy is a limitless store of usable energy. The ground-state energy of a quantum oscillator is real in the formal description, and differences associated with boundary conditions can have observable effects such as the Casimir effect. But extracting unlimited work from a ground state would violate the same energy bookkeeping the concept comes from. The practical question is always which energy difference is physically accessible and how the apparatus returns to its initial state.&lt;ref name=&quot;casimir1948&quot; /&gt;

A fourth misconception is that gravity only responds to rest mass. In relativity, the source is the full stress-energy content. Rest mass is important, but so are momentum, pressure, stress, and field energy. This is why a black hole can gain mass-energy by absorbing light, and why the energy stored in a system contributes to its inertia even when that energy is carried by massless fields.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtw&quot; /&gt;

== Modeling and limitations ==
Energy is not something one can touch or hold. It is a conserved quantity assigned to physical states under specified assumptions. In simple situations, such as an isolated laboratory system in nearly flat spacetime, total energy and momentum can be defined cleanly. In harder situations, such as cosmology, accelerating frames, or regions near horizons, the question has to be asked more carefully: energy of which system, measured by which observer, and relative to which background?

One limitation is frame dependence. Kinetic energy depends on the observer's frame, while invariant mass does not. A fast particle has more total energy in a laboratory frame than in its own rest frame, but the particle has the same invariant mass in both descriptions. A photon has no rest frame at all, so its energy is measured relative to the observer: the same photon can be redshifted or blueshifted depending on relative motion or gravitational field.

A second limitation is that potential and binding energies depend on how the system is divided. The mass of a bound system includes interaction energy, but assigning that energy to one constituent or another may not be meaningful. In field theory the problem becomes sharper: vacuum energy, zero-point energy, and renormalization require a careful distinction between absolute formal terms and observable differences.&lt;ref name=&quot;weinbergQFT&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=Steven |title=The Quantum Theory of Fields, Volume 1: Foundations |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=9780521550017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The phrase ''energy without mass'' is therefore correct when it means energy without rest mass, as in photons. It would be misleading only if it meant energy without momentum, frequency, field state, boundary conditions, or a physical system carrying the quantity. A good rule is to ask four questions: energy of which system, measured by which observer, exchanged by which interaction, and conserved under which symmetry? That wording keeps the simple intuition without losing the physics.


= References =
{{reflist|3}}</text>
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      <comment>Economics influences almost every aspect of modern life, from personal financial decisions to global business strategies. Students studying this subject gain valuable knowledge about markets, trade, government policies, consumer behavior, and economic development.</comment>
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= Why Economics Skills Matter More Than Ever for Academic and Career Success =
Economics influences almost every aspect of modern life, from personal financial decisions to global business strategies. Students studying this subject gain valuable knowledge about markets, trade, government policies, consumer behavior, and economic development. While the concepts are fascinating, they often require careful analysis, mathematical reasoning, and critical thinking. As academic expectations continue to rise, building a strong understanding of economics becomes an important step toward long-term educational and professional success.

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