Understanding Arithmetic Circuits

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    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
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        <username>Young1lim</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
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== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260710.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260710.pdf|B]] ||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Complex analysis in plain view</title>
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      <text bytes="5296" sha1="nke9xqnj2pw9rukmoaz81hbtp0dqjcx" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260710.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]</text>
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=={{spaces|14|type}}.............'''''Journal (medicine)'''''[https://doaj.org/ *]//     '''[https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/wijoumed #]PEER REVIEWER[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Peer_reviewers_list #][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Peer_reviewers +]'''''   //[[File:WikiJournal of Medicine logo.svg|40 px|]][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikijournal_of_Medicine WikiJournal of Medicine]''..............==
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====='''''{{resize|180%|suggest}}'''''=====
1.&lt;u&gt;[https://publicationethics.org/files/Ethical_Guidelines_For_Peer_Reviewers_2.pdf  COPE/Guidance for peer reviewers] leaving this should there be need for it[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine/Peer_reviewers] [https://doaj.org/](would be better if quarter yearly, instead of semi- annual)[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine/Past_issues]&lt;/u&gt;--
[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 19:58, 7 August 2016 (UTC)

2.[[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]]  knowing ''reviewers'' cant author papers, however below have put together a suggestion that you may accept/decline (or consider for later) for anyone who might be interested,  hoping this is helpful for the journal, thank you--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 15:03, 8 August 2016 (UTC)
&lt;br&gt;
{{collapse top|''EVD''[[File:Ebola virus particles.jpg|30 px]]|bg=#F0F8FF}}
*&lt;mark&gt;'''suggestion'''&lt;/mark&gt; among possible topics for future ''issues'',could be a ''literature review'' which looks at 1.pathophysiological mechanism aspects of the Ebola virus disease that might make it '''''susceptible''''' to certain treatments, and 2. the '''''efficacy''''' of ZMapp to treat the Ebola virus disease based on current secondary (and other sources if needed) references.

*'''possible sources'''
*''sample'' reference for question 1
**{{cite journal|last1=Falasca|first1=L|last2=Agrati|first2=C|last3=Petrosillo|first3=N|last4=Di Caro|first4=A|last5=Capobianchi|first5=M R|last6=Ippolito|first6=G|last7=Piacentini|first7=M|title=Molecular mechanisms of Ebola virus pathogenesis: focus on cell death|journal=Cell Death and Differentiation|date=1 August 2015|volume=22|issue=8|pages=1250–1259|doi=10.1038/cdd.2015.67|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4495366/|accessdate=8 August 2016|issn=1350-9047}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Jeffrey E|last2=Saphire|first2=Erica Ollmann|title=Ebolavirus glycoprotein structure and mechanism of entry|journal=Future virology|date=1 January 2009|volume=4|issue=6|pages=621–635|doi=10.2217/fvl.09.56|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2829775/|accessdate=8 August 2016|issn=1746-0794}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Lai|first1=Kang Yiu|last2=Ng|first2=Wing Yiu George|last3=Cheng|first3=Fan Fanny|title=Human Ebola virus infection in West Africa: a review of available therapeutic agents that target different steps of the life cycle of Ebola virus|journal=Infectious Diseases of Poverty|date=28 November 2014|volume=3|doi=10.1186/2049-9957-3-43|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4334593/|accessdate=8 August 2016|issn=2049-9957}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Sullivan|first1=Nancy|last2=Yang|first2=Zhi-Yong|last3=Nabel|first3=Gary J.|title=Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies|journal=Journal of Virology|date=15 September 2003|volume=77|issue=18|pages=9733–9737|doi=10.1128/JVI.77.18.9733-9737.2003|url=http://jvi.asm.org/content/77/18/9733.full|accessdate=8 August 2016|language=en|issn=0022-538X}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Mahanty|first1=Siddhartha|last2=Bray|first2=Mike|title=Pathogenesis of filoviral haemorrhagic fevers|journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases|date=August 2004|volume=4|issue=8|pages=487–498|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01103-X|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(04)01103-X/fulltext|accessdate=8 August 2016}}


*''sample'' references for question 2
**{{cite journal|last1=Davidson|first1=Edgar|last2=Bryan|first2=Christopher|last3=Fong|first3=Rachel H.|last4=Barnes|first4=Trevor|last5=Pfaff|first5=Jennifer M.|last6=Mabila|first6=Manu|last7=Rucker|first7=Joseph B.|last8=Doranz|first8=Benjamin J.|title=Mechanism of Binding to Ebola Virus Glycoprotein by the ZMapp, ZMAb, and MB-003 Cocktail Antibodies|journal=Journal of Virology|date=26 August 2015|volume=89|issue=21|pages=10982–10992|doi=10.1128/JVI.01490-15|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4621129/|accessdate=8 August 2016|issn=0022-538X}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Madelain|first1=Vincent|last2=Nguyen|first2=Thi Huyen Tram|last3=Olivo|first3=Anaelle|last4=Lamballerie|first4=Xavier de|last5=Guedj|first5=Jérémie|last6=Taburet|first6=Anne-Marie|last7=Mentré|first7=France|title=Ebola Virus Infection: Review of the Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Properties of Drugs Considered for Testing in Human Efficacy Trials|journal=Clinical Pharmacokinetics|date=21 January 2016|volume=55|issue=8|pages=907–923|doi=10.1007/s40262-015-0364-1|url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40262-015-0364-1|accessdate=8 August 2016|language=en|issn=0312-5963}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Beeching|first1=Nicholas J.|last2=Fenech|first2=Manuel|last3=Houlihan|first3=Catherine F.|title=Ebola virus disease|journal=BMJ|date=10 December 2014|volume=349|pages=g7348|doi=10.1136/bmj.g7348|url=http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g7348|accessdate=8 August 2016|language=en|issn=1756-1833}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Tran|first1=Erin E. H.|last2=Nelson|first2=Elizabeth A.|last3=Bonagiri|first3=Pranay|last4=Simmons|first4=James A.|last5=Shoemaker|first5=Charles J.|last6=Schmaljohn|first6=Connie S.|last7=Kobinger|first7=Gary P.|last8=Zeitlin|first8=Larry|last9=Subramaniam|first9=Sriram|last10=White|first10=Judith M.|title=Mapping of Ebolavirus Neutralization by Monoclonal Antibodies in the ZMapp Cocktail Using Cryo-Electron Tomography and Studies of Cellular Entry|journal=Journal of Virology|date=8 June 2016|pages=JVI.00406–16|doi=10.1128/JVI.00406-16|url=http://jvi.asm.org/content/early/2016/06/02/JVI.00406-16.long|accessdate=8 August 2016|language=en|issn=0022-538X}}
**{{cite journal|last1=Qiu|first1=Xiangguo|last2=Wong|first2=Gary|last3=Audet|first3=Jonathan|last4=Bello|first4=Alexander|last5=Fernando|first5=Lisa|last6=Alimonti|first6=Judie B.|last7=Fausther-Bovendo|first7=Hugues|last8=Wei|first8=Haiyan|last9=Aviles|first9=Jenna|last10=Hiatt|first10=Ernie|last11=Johnson|first11=Ashley|last12=Morton|first12=Josh|last13=Swope|first13=Kelsi|last14=Bohorov|first14=Ognian|last15=Bohorova|first15=Natasha|last16=Goodman|first16=Charles|last17=Kim|first17=Do|last18=Pauly|first18=Michael H.|last19=Velasco|first19=Jesus|last20=Pettitt|first20=James|last21=Olinger|first21=Gene G.|last22=Whaley|first22=Kevin|last23=Xu|first23=Bianli|last24=Strong|first24=James E.|last25=Zeitlin|first25=Larry|last26=Kobinger|first26=Gary P.|title=Reversion of advanced Ebola virus disease in nonhuman primates with ZMapp|journal=Nature|date=29 August 2014|volume=advance online publication|doi=10.1038/nature13777|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vnfv/ncurrent/full/nature13777.html|language=en|issn=1476-4687}}
{{collapse bottom}}
*thank you--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 13:35, 8 August 2016 (UTC)

Thanks for the suggestions! It is inadvisable (but not impossible) to submit a work as a participant of the journal (see [[Wikiversity Journal of Medicine/Publishing#participants in the journal|Publishing#Participants in the journal]]). You could also try contacting and inviting people who you may think are interested in authoring such a work. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 15:41, 8 August 2016 (UTC)
:thank you({{font color|red|update}}) 
*perhaps another possibility would be to submit[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic '''''West African Ebola virus epidemic''''']which is '''GA'''/
*additionally another GA article [though unrelated[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyslexia]] is also done...--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 15:53, 8 August 2016 (UTC)

:::::::::::[[Talk:WikiJournal of Medicine/2016#Publishing Wikipedia articles]]

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=====new name/user group status=====
{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; cellspacing=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;width: 100%; background-color: none; border: 1px solid blue; vertical-align: top; border-radius: 8px; -moz-border-radius: 8px; box-shadow: 0.1em 0.1em 0.5em rgba(0,0,0,0.75); -moz-box-shadow: 0.1em 0.1em 0.5em rgba(0,0,0,0.75); -webkit-box-shadow: 0.1em 0.1em 0.5em rgba(0,0,0,0.75);&quot;
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*{{Done}}[https://twitter.com/Wijoumed '''WikiJournal of Medicine''' !]
*{{partly done}} ([https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiJournal &lt;big&gt;'''{{font color|orange|This is a proposal for a new Wikimedia sister project}}'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;{{spaces|26|type}}&lt;big&gt;'''{{font color|orange|A site where authors can write their works directly online. The works then undergo independent scholarly peer review before {{spaces|22|type}}officially published in the journal.}}'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;{{spaces|26|type}}&lt;big&gt;'''{{font color|orange|It is a way of bridging the Wikipedia–academia gap....}}'''&lt;/big&gt;][[File:WikiJournal logo (flat blue yellow).svg|right|50px]])('''or Thematic''')
:*[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group&amp;diff=1718470&amp;oldid=1718192 discussion]
:*[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1815676 other option]([https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_thematic_organizations#existing thematic])[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1891784 sent]{{resize|50%|I hope edits/history is moved as well?}}
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===== Credentials for peer reviewing an article on genetics =====

Hi again!

WikiJournal of Medicine now has a submission about genetics. If you'd be interested in peer reviewing it, I first want you to provide some credentials of your expertise in molecular biology, such as a link to a reliable webpage, or copies of certification documents. You may email it to {{nospam|editor.in.chief|wijoumed.org}}, and I will then keep it confidential.

Best regards,

[[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 21:02, 16 November 2016 (UTC)
:[[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] per [https://tools.wmflabs.org/xtools-ec/?user=Ozzie10aaaa&amp;project=en.wikipedia.org] this month has gone ~1600 edits to ~380 (RL work increased/time of year[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_and_holiday_season]...as you know I've been signed on since ''7 August''[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Peer_reviewers&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=1587236])...im very grateful for the opportunity to do a proper review, due to the aforementioned reason, I will have to ''pass''. I would guess the last week of December things will slow down again, and I hope I can be afforded another opportunity. Thank you again--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 01:50, 17 November 2016 (UTC)
::Very well. I will let you know if there is a fitting submission next year then. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 08:30, 17 November 2016 (UTC)
*''postscript'' am interested in 2-4 reviews per yr.(if possible)
{{collapse top|{{nay}} or {{aye}}}}
{{Done/See also}}
{{cob}}
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&lt;br&gt;
:::::::::::::::::::[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiJournal_article_nominations '''''{{resize|200%|Nominations}}''''']
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=='''SUBMISSIONS'''==
:::::::::::::::::::::::[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Volume_11_Issue_1 '''{{font color|black|Current 2024 ISSUE}}''']
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
=== {{resize|125%|1}} '''Table of pediatric medical conditions and findings named after foods'''/([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Table_of_pediatric_medical_conditions_and_findings_named_after_foods {{font color|red|''response''}}:{{Tick}} '''{{font color|red|acknowledged}}'''])===
[[File:Table of pediatric medical conditions and findings named after foods.jpg|left|300px]]
{{clear}}

=== {{resize|125%|2}} '''Article on Rotavirus'''/({{font color|red|''response''}}:    {{Not sure}}     )===

Hi!

We now have [[Draft:WikiJournal of Medicine/Rotavirus|a submission on Rotavirus]]. Could you peer review this one?

Best regards,

[[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:19, 12 April 2017 (UTC)
:will look at article and consider(will inform you should I have the time/email you needed ''Peer reviewer cred.'')thank you--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 19:41, 12 April 2017 (UTC)
::Thanks for your consideration! We now have one peer review, and we'd like the second one to be from someone outside the Wikiversity project, so you can help by being a [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]] for this purpose when you have the time. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 18:10, 16 April 2017 (UTC)


{{od}}
(see '''''&lt;u&gt;new name&lt;/u&gt;'' subsection''')
:::^
:::|
[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Author_guidelines '''Criteria for inclusion''']

=== {{resize|125%|3}} '''Article on Pitfalls in Global Response to COVID-19 and its Impact on Global Health'''/( {{font color|red|''response''}}{{Done}})===
*[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_Preprints/Pitfalls_in_Global_Response_to_COVID-19_and_its_Impact_on_Global_Health&amp;diff=2188364&amp;oldid=2186133 commented]..........(editorial comments) Aug/2020
[[File:Pitfalls in Global Response to COVID-19 and its Impact on Global Health.jpg|350px|left]]
{{clear}}

=== {{resize|125%|4}}===
([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2598702 should ''limited'' additional assistance be needed])Rwatson1955, OhanaUnited[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:OhanaUnited&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2805645 (editor-in-chief Science)] 
*[https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=27861881 update]
::::'''{{resize|200%|NEXT review}}'''

[[File:Far Echoes (1966) - DPLA - 0c60551520a08275e4efe05cb816fca7 (page 79).jpg|left|350px]]


-
[https://www.scimagojr.com/journalrank.php?category=2701 {{font color|orange|SCHimago}}][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category:WikiJournal_of_Medicine {{font color|red|category}}][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group '''''user group'''''][https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiJournal_article_nominations#Nominations ''nom'']
[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Ethics_statement#Disclosure_and_Conflict_of_Interest coi]
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::preferences&gt;appearance&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering ''modern'']
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:::::[[File:WikiJournal of Medicine logo.svg|50 px]] {{resize|2.5em|{{font color|red|'''''W&amp;thinsp; i &amp;thinsp;k&amp;thinsp; i &amp;thinsp;J&amp;thinsp; o&amp;thinsp; u &amp;thinsp;r&amp;thinsp; n &amp;thinsp;a &amp;thinsp;l&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;   o &amp;thinsp;f&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;   M &amp;thinsp;e&amp;thinsp; d &amp;thinsp;I &amp;thinsp;c&amp;thinsp; I&amp;thinsp; n&amp;thinsp; e '''''}}}}

[[File:WikiProject Medicine Banner.jpg|thumb|610 px|center|{{font color|blue|Additionally please........................... Join WikiProject Medicine today at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine Wikiproject Medicine]!}}]]


[[File:World map of total confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million people by country.svg|thumb|center|900px|World map of total confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million people by country(by the end of the month indicated there were 100 million cases/2 million+ deaths per WHO)]]


[[File:Ebola Map from Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone in summer 2014 (animated).gif|thumb|center|From the &lt;u&gt;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_epidemics '''List of epidemics''']&lt;/u&gt;, Ebola Map from Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone in summer 2014 (source:CDC)]]
[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiJournal '''proposal for a new Wikimedia Foundation Sister Project'''][https://twitter.com/WikiJMed {{font color|red|twitter}}]&lt;/div&gt;...[http://www.fldoe.org/schools/higher-ed/ {{font color|green|ḞḒḚ}}]
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&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: Arial, san-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;wv-live-clock&quot; style=&quot;font-size:1.4em; font-weight:bold; color:white;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

:::::[[File:WikiJournal of Medicine logo.svg|50 px]] {{resize|2.5em|{{font color|red|'''''W&amp;thinsp; i &amp;thinsp;k&amp;thinsp; i &amp;thinsp;J&amp;thinsp; o&amp;thinsp; u &amp;thinsp;r&amp;thinsp; n &amp;thinsp;a &amp;thinsp;l&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;   o &amp;thinsp;f&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;&amp;thinsp;   M &amp;thinsp;e&amp;thinsp; d &amp;thinsp;I &amp;thinsp;c&amp;thinsp; I&amp;thinsp; n&amp;thinsp; e '''''}}}}

[[File:WikiProject Medicine Banner.jpg|thumb|610 px|center|{{font color|blue|Additionally please........................... Join WikiProject Medicine today at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine Wikiproject Medicine]!}}]]


[[File:World map of total confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million people by country.svg|thumb|center|900px|World map of total confirmed COVID-19 deaths per million people by country(by the end of the month indicated there were 100 million cases/2 million+ deaths per WHO)]]


[[File:Ebola Map from Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone in summer 2014 (animated).gif|thumb|center|From the &lt;u&gt;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_epidemics '''List of epidemics''']&lt;/u&gt;, Ebola Map from Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone in summer 2014 (source:CDC)]]
[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiJournal '''proposal for a new Wikimedia Foundation Sister Project'''][https://twitter.com/WikiJMed {{font color|red|twitter}}]&lt;/div&gt;...[http://www.fldoe.org/schools/higher-ed/ {{font color|green|ḞḒḚ}}]
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      <text bytes="45479" sha1="dzoz6oi98ud6ysnjm1i8dtxvbhb50im" xml:space="preserve">== Overview ==
The Dukedom of Abercorn is the last non-royal dukedom created. Queen Victoria created it in 1869. 

This page includes the Earl of Wicklow, the family of which married into the Abercorn family in 1816 when William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Cecil Frances Hamilton — the daughter and only child of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-24|title=William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Howard,_4th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1360966619|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; William Howard, 4th Earl of Wicklow was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-08-26|title=Charles Howard, 5th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Howard,_5th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1242455245|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow married Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton (daughter of the 2nd Duke of Abercorn) in 1902.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-05|title=Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Howard,_6th_Earl_of_Wicklow&amp;oldid=1304372795|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The National Library of Ireland has papers from Sarah Howard and her children, including Lady Caroline Howard. 

== Also Known As ==
*Family name: Hamilton
*the Duke of Abercorn
**James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10144.htm#i101433|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;&quot;James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101033|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (3 January 1913 – 12 September 1953)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;&quot;James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101031|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*the Duchess of Abercorn
**Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (10 August 1868 – 31 October 1885)
**Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (31 October 1885 – 3 January 1913)
*Dowager Duchess of Hamilton
**Louisa Russell Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – March 1905)
**Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (3 January 1913 – )
*Subsidiary titles:
**Marquess of Hamilton (courtesy title for the heir apparent)
***James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (31 October 1885 – 12 September 1953)
**Viscount Strabane (courtesy title for the heir apparent of the Marquess of Hamilton)

== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==
=== Friends ===
*The Royal Family, especially [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Alexandra, Princess of Wales | Alexandra, Princess]] of Wales, in the generation of the 2nd duke.

== Timeline ==
A lot of people are treated on this page, so this timeline will be somewhat chaotic to read. These events probably didn't directly affect every single person treated on this page, but discussions about them probably circulated through the families. The detail about Lady Caroline Howard and her mother, the Hon. Susan Howard, is to make these people, whose papers are in the National Library of Ireland, more concrete and known.

'''1832 October 25''', James Hamilton and Louisa Russell married at Gordon Castle, Fochabers, Morayshire, in Scotland.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

'''1854 May 23''', Beatrix Frances Hamilton and George Frederick D'Arcy Lambton married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1147.htm#i11470|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1855 April 10''', Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton and Thomas George Anson married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Harriett Georgiana Louisa Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1034.htm#i10332|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1858 October 26''', Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton and William Henry Edgcumbe married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1135.htm#i11344|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1859 November 22''', Louisa Jane Hamilton and William Montagu Douglass Scott married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10359.htm#i103583|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1868''', the title the Duke of Abercorn was created.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-06|title=James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_1st_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=966293304|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1869 January 7''', James Hamilton (2nd Duke) and Maria Anna Curzon-Howe married at St. George's Church, St. George Street, Hanover Square, in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Mary Anna Curzon.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101034|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1869 November 8''', there may have been a double wedding: Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton and George Charles Spencer-Churchill married&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10595.htm#i105942|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and Maud Evelyn Hamilton and Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1163.htm#i11629|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1871 January''' '''4, Wednesday''', Lady Caroline Howard was invited to a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#4 January 1871, Wednesday|ball hosted by Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards]] (probably in Coventry?).

'''1871 February 17, Friday''', Lady Caroline Howard attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball|ball hosted by the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; in Birmingham]].

'''1871 May 9, Tuesday''', Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Alice Howard and Lady Louisa Howard were [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room|presented to Queen Victoria at a Drawing-room]] by their mother, the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard.

'''1871 May 25, Thursday''', Lady Caroline Howard attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#25 May 1871, Thursday, Dinner Party Hosted by Mr. and Mrs. Charltons|dinner party hosted by Mr. and Mrs. Charlton, of Hesleyside]].

'''1871 August 31, Thursday''', The Freeman's Journal reported that &quot;The Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and suite have arrived at the Morrisson Hotel.&quot;&lt;blockquote&gt;The following are amongst the latest arrivals at the Morrisson Hotel: — Mrs. Percival Maxwell and the Misses Maxwell and suite, Mr and Mrs Herbert Read and suite, Rev H R Heywood, and Master H A Heywood, Mr F H Downing, Mr M Neil, Mr and Mrs Herbert and suite, Mr Abbott, Mr D'Arcy, Mr and Mrs G Woods and suite.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Freeman's Journal'' 31 August 1871, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 1a [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000056/18710831/012/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1871 November 28''', George Francis Hamilton and Maud Caroline Lascelles married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;&quot;Rt. Hon. Lord Sir George Francis Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1133.htm#i11323|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1872 January 4, Thursday''', the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard and their suites were reported to &quot;have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel in Dublin.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Miscellany.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Post'' 4 January 1872, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18720104/021/0003. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Morning Mail'' (Dublin) 5 January 1872, Friday: 3 [of 4, digital], Col. 2c [of 10 on digital image]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0006103/18720105/067/0003. The digital image has the last 2 columns of the prior page on this page, so the citation should be to p. 2 [of 4], Col. 8c [of 8].&lt;/ref&gt; Also at the Morrisson's Hotel at this time was Sir Roland Blennerhassett, Bart., M.P.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Dublin Evening'' Mail 5 January 1872, Friday:  3 [of 4], Col. 8b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18720105/028/0003. Same print and digital title, print n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1872 February 28, Wednesday''', the Howards are back at Morrisson's Hotel:&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, and the Hon Mrs Howard and suite, Shelton Abbey, have arrived at Morrrisson's Hotel.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Telegraph'' 28 February 1872, Wednesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002093/18720228/051/0004. Print title: ''The Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1872 March 2, Saturday''', the ''Weekly Freeman and Irish Agriculturalist'' reported that &quot;Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, and the Hon Mrs Howard and suite, Shelton Abbey, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel.&quot; Two 1-sentence paragraphs later, the paper reported that the same group had &quot;left Morrisson's Hotel for Shelton Abbey.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Weekly Freeman's Journal'' 2 March 1872, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 1a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001446/18720302/062/0007. Print title: ''Weekly Freeman and Irish Agriculturalist'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt; Shelton Abbey was the [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn#Residences|ancestral seat and at this time the country residence]] of the Earls of Wicklow, Arklow, Co. Wicklow.

'''1872 December 10, Tuesday''', the Hon. Mrs. Howard, Shelton Abbey, Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, Lady Alice Howard and suite had &quot;arrived at Horrisson's Hotel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Miscellany.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Post'' 10 December 1872, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 9c [of 10, on the digital page]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18721210/025/0002. Same print title, p. missing but 3, col. 2c [of 8].&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1872 December 13, Friday''', &quot;The Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Louisa Howard, and Lady Alice Howard and suite have left Morrisson's Hotel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Freeman's Journal'' 13 December 1872, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000056/18721213/006/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1873 January''' '''13, Monday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard, the Hon. Lady Alice Howard and the Hon. Lady Louisa Howard attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s#Ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge|Marquis of Hartington's ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge]]. It is not clear why Lady Caroline Howard's name is not mentioned.

'''1873 January 14, Tuesday''', &quot;Lord Dunally and suite, Hon. Mrs. Howard, Lady Alice Howard and suite, Lady Louise Howard and suite, and Lady Caroline Howard, have arrived at Morrisson's Hotel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Post'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000435/18730114/049/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; Since they attended a ball the night before, probably they had already arrived. Lady Catherine was with them.

'''1874 December 15, Tuesday''', the Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach hosted a dinner in the Chief Secretary's Lodge, suggesting that this social event might have had a political purpose. Mr. LeFanu cannot be the Irish writer Sheridan Le Fanu, who died 7 February 1873.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-28|title=Sheridan Le Fanu|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheridan_Le_Fanu&amp;oldid=1361491348|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Perhaps this LeFanu is a relation, a son or brother? Another LeFanu with a first name gets mentioned at a social event about this time.)&lt;blockquote&gt;THE CHIEF SECRETARY’S LODGE.&lt;p&gt;The Right Hon. Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach entertained the following at dinner on Tuesday evening at the Chief Secretary’s Lodge: — Sir Dominic Corrigan, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guinness, Lady Mary Fortescue, the Hon. Mrs. Howard and Lady Caroline Howard, Mr. and Mrs. Percy Bernard, Colonel Henry, R.A., and Mrs. Henry; Mr. Donnelly. C.B., and Mrs. Donnelly; Mr., Mrs., and Miss lsaac; Mr. LeFanu, Colonel Forster, Colonel Hillier, and Mr. Caulfield [Caulfeild?].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 17 December 1874, Thursday: 4 [of 4; n.p. in print], Col. 1a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18741217/099/0004. Print title: ''The Cork Constitution''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1876 March 23''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Francesca Maria Chamberlayne married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1877 July 25, Wednesday''', Miss Tottenham, Lady Caroline Howard, Miss Colley are reported to have arrived at Merton Lodge in Torquay.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Torquay Directory.&quot; ''Torquay Directory and South Devon Journal'' 25 July 1877, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001246/18770725/085/0004. Same print and digital title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 July 28, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the guests at Merton Lodge in Lincombe Hill Road Middle, Torquay. Other guests listed are Miss Kelly, Mrs. Frank Webber, Miss Tottenham and Miss Colley.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;49. Lincombe Hill Road. Middle.&quot; &quot;Torquay Directory.&quot; ''Torquay Times and South Devon Advertiser'' 28 July 1877, Saturday: 2 [of 8, both print and digital], Col. 3c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001420/18770728/039/0002.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 December 6, Thursday''', donations from the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard (£2 2s.), Lady Alice Howard (£1), Lady Caroline Howard (£1) and Lady Louise Howard (£1) to the Church of Ireland Clergy Widows' and Orphans' Society.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Church.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 11 December 1877, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001648/18771211/076/0003. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1877 December 22, Saturday''', Sarah Howard, Lady Caroline Howard and Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard were visitors in Dagmar Terrace in Portsmouth. The following are all the people listed as visitors at Dagmar Terrace, with the odd numbering:&lt;blockquote&gt;D&lt;small&gt;AGMAR&lt;/small&gt; T&lt;small&gt;ER&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;RACE&lt;/small&gt;.

# Captain the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, late 60th Rifles, &amp; the Hon Mrs Howard Lady Caroline Howard
# Captain &amp; Mrs. Henderson
## [a] The Hon. Richard and Mrs. Bineham 
# [a] Captain and Mrs. Fearson and family
# Mr.and Mrs. Hall Mrs. and the Misses Buchannans
# The Rev Palms &amp; fam
# [a] Colonel Johnston [a] Mrs. Oldfield [a] Miss Flowers
# Captain Parkinson and family&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Visitors' List.&quot; ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 22 December 1877, Saturday: 3 [of 10, digital and print], Col. 5 [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18771222/027/0003. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal''.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''1878 January 18, Friday''', The ''Dublin Daily Express'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady Caroline Howard arrived yesterday at Kingstown from England.&lt;p&gt;

Captain the Hon. C. Howard and Mrs. Howard have arrived at Kingstown from England.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 19 January 1878, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18780119/113/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1878 January 26, Saturday, – February 9, Saturday'''&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Visitors' List.&quot; ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 9 February 1878, Saturday: 3 [of 10], Col. 6c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18780209/033/0003. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, — County Journal'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;''', at least''', visitors at Dagmar Terrace (in Portsmouth?) were Lady Caroline Howard, listed with Capt. the Hon. Cecil Ralph Howard, &quot;late 60th Rifles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Visitors' List.&quot; ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette'' 26 January 1878, Saturday: 6 [of 10], Col. 6c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001365/18780126/051/0006. Print title: ''Portsmouth Times and Naval Gazette, County Journal'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1878 July 20''', Claud John Hamilton and Carolina Chandos-Pole married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;&quot;Lord Claud John Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110662|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1879 October 23, Thursday''', Lady Caroline Howard had &quot;arrived from England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 23 October 1879, Thursday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18791023/061/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1880 June 2''', Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow and Fanny Catherine Wingfield married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1880 December 13, Monday''', Lady Caroline Howard &quot;arrived at Kingstown from London.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 13 December 1880, Monday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18801213/089/0005. Print title: ''Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 July 25, Monday''', the ''Irish Times'' says that Lady Caroline Howard and &quot;the Hon. Mrs. Howard and the Ladies Howard (2) have arrived at Kingstown from England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Intelligence.&quot; ''Irish Times'' 25 July 1881, Monday: 6 [of 8, digital and print], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001683/18810725/124/0006. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 August 10, Wednesday''', the ''Dublin Evening Mail'' says that Lady Caroline Howard &quot;has left Kingstown for England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashion and Varieties.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Mail'' 10 August 1881, Wednesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 9c [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000433/18810810/046/0003. Same print and digital title, print p. is n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1881 October 22, Saturday''', Lady Caroline Howard is listed as one of the visitors staying at the Crown Hotel &quot;during the past week.&quot; The visitors listed are the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;Mr. Thomas Barber, Doctor and Mrs. Ayerst, Miss Noyce, Dr. Wilks, Mr. Nightingale, Mr. and Mrs. J. Hill, Lady Caroline Howard, the Hon. Mrs. Ross, Mr. Masters, Mr. Richardson and friend, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Wilson, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lyndhurst, Oct. 22.&quot; ''Hampshire Advertiser'' 22 October 1881, Saturday: 7 [of  8, both print and digital], Col. 2c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000495/18811022/049/0007. Print title: ''Hampshire Advertiser County Newspaper''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Fixing Things ===
'''1882 January 3, Tuesday''', the Howard women donated to feed poor people at Christmas:
&lt;blockquote&gt;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.&lt;p&gt;

Mr J R Fowler acknowledges with thanks the following for free breakfasts to the poor in the Christian Union Buildings:— Mrs Barker, £5; Mrs Lovell, by Mrs Aimers, 10s; Mrs Jno Figgis, [illegible, shillings]; collected by Miss Carroll, 10s: Capt Thompson, 5s; Mrs O Stoney, 2s 6d; Mrs E H Smyth, £1; A Friend, per Dr Darley, £1; Mrs Lewers, £1; Mr Holmes, 10s; Mr Duffus, 10s; Mr W O'B Smyth, 10s; Hon Mrs Howard, £1; Lady Caroline Howard, £1; Lady Alice Howard, 10s; Lady Louisa Howard, 10s; T C Ratcliffe, per Mrs Smyly, £5; Mrs Hemphill, per Mr G Atkinson, 2s 6d; collected in box, 9d — Total, [illegible12] 10 s 9d. Number present last Sunday, 1,200.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Acknowledgments.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 3 January 1882, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18820103/061/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1882 March 16''', Georgiana Susan Hamilton and Edward Turnour married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p1180.htm#i11791|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1882 June 1, Thursday''', the Hon. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard arrived in Kingstown from England.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Fashion.&quot; ''Evening Irish Times'' 1 June 1882, Thursday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archives'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003464/18820601/108/0007. Print title ''Irish Times'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1883 May 28, Monday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard &quot;left Kingstown for England,&quot; as did the Hon. Bourke.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Fashion.&quot; ''Evening Irish Times'' 28 May 1883, Monday: 6 [of 8], Col. 8b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archives'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003464/18830528/092/0006. Print title: ''Irish Times'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1883 September 17, Monday''', Lady Caroline Howard had &quot;arrived at Kingstown from England.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Court.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 17 September 1883, Monday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18830917/033/0003. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1883 November 20''', the marriage between Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill and George Charles Spencer-Churchill was annulled by petition from Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (married in 1869).&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

'''1883 December 27, Thursday''', the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and Lady Caroline Howard were invited to the ''déjeuner'' after the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1883#Wedding of William Noble and Grace Elizabeth Lefroy|wedding of Colonel William Noble and Grace Elizabeth Lefroy]].

'''1886 November 25, Thursday''', the Council of the Church of Ireland Clergy Widows' and Orphans' Society met and accepted donations and subsriptions from a number of people, including the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard (£2 2s), Lady Caroline Howard, Lady Alice Howard and Lady Louisa Howard (each £1).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Church of Ireland Clergy Widows' and Orphans' Society.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 27 November 1886, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7pm]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18861127/121/0005. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1887 November 14, Monday''', the standing committee of the Meath Hospital and County Dublin Infirmary met and accepted a number of donations, including £L1 1s each from the Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard, Lady Alice M, Howard, Lady Caroline L. Howard and Lady Louisa F. Howard.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Meath Hospital and County Dublin Infirmary.&quot; ''Dublin Daily Express'' 15 November 1887, Tuesday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001384/18871115/034/0003. Print title: ''The Daily Express'', same p.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1891 June 2''', Ernest William Hamilton and Pamela Campbell married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;&quot;Pamela Campbell.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21063|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1894 April 10''', Fanny Catherine Wingfield Howard, Dowager 6th Countess of Wicklow married her 2nd husband, Marcus Francis Beresford.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1894 November 1''', James Albert Edward Hamilton and Rosaline Cecilia Caroline Bingham married at St. Paul's Church, Knightsbridge, in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10104.htm#i101032|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1895 July 13 to August 7''', the general election of 1895. Following the election, the brother-in-law of Cecil Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow's (brother of his first wife Francesca Chamberlayne) was unseated because of allegations of misconduct.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-02-27|title=Thomas Chamberlayne (cricketer)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Chamberlayne_(cricketer)&amp;oldid=1340809770|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 June 28, Monday''', according to the ''Morning Post'', James Hamilton, 2nd Duke and Maria, Duchess of Abercorn were invited to the [[Social Victorians/Diamond Jubilee Garden Party|Queen's Garden Party]], the official end of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations in London, as were James Albert Edward Hamilton, Marquis and Rosaline, Marchioness of Hamilton.&lt;ref&gt;“The Queen’s Garden Party.” ''Morning Post'' 29 June 1897, Tuesday: 4 [of 12], Cols. 1a–7c [of 7] and 5, Col. 1a–c. ''British Newspaper Archive''  ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000174/18970629/032/0004&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' and ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970629/032/0005&lt;/nowiki&gt;''.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 July 2, Friday''', Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton, the Marquess of Hamilton, and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton. Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended.

'''1902''', Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow and Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton married. (She was the daughter of James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn.)&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

'''1902 January 14''', Gladys Mary Hamilton and Ralph Francis Forward-Howard married.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Gladys Mary Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21066|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1933 July 11''', Claud Nigel Hamilton and Violet Ruby Ashton married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;&quot;Captain Lord Sir Claud Nigel Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2109.htm#i21081|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==

[[File:Helen-Mary-Theresa-ne-Vane-Tempest-Stewart-Countess-of-Ilchester-when-Lady-Helen-Stewart-as-the-Archduchess-Marie-Christine-of-Austria.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a seated woman richly dressed in an historical costume with a white feather plume in her hair and a fan|Lady Helen Stewart as Arch-duchess Marie Christine of Austria. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]]
=== Lady Alexandra Hamilton ===
Lady Alexandra Hamilton was one of the archduchesses — along with with 3 or 4 other young women — in [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#The Entourage of Maria Thérèse|the entourage of the Marchioness of Londonderry]], who led the Austrian procession as Marie Thérèse, Empress of the Holy Roman Empire.&lt;ref&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 3a}} These young women were present at the ball as the daughters of Marie Thérèse, and the young men dressed as archdukes were present as her sons. Lady Alexandra Hamilton went as &quot;Archduchess Marie-Josepha in the Archduchess Marie-Karoline and Emperor Joseph II section of the Austrian Court of Maria Theresa Quadrille.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 6b}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;&quot;Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

The newspapers report that the archduchesses were all dressed alike, but only one photograph exists of any of these young women in costume — that of [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart|Helen Mary Theresa Vane-Tempest-Stewart]] (which is shown, right). The newspaper descriptions are on her page, with her portrait in costume, but they apply to all the archduchesses.

=== Lord Frederick Hamilton ===
[[File:Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton Vanity Fair 1895-02-07.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colored drawing of a man in a suit, his hands in his pockets, facing to the right|Lord Frederick Hamilton, ''Vanity Fair'', by &quot;Spy,&quot; 7 February 1895]]
Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton was 6th son and 13th child of the 1st Duke of Abercorn. No photograph of him in costume exists.

He is shown (at left) as he looked in 7 February 1895 in a Spy caricature in ''Vanity Fair''. This caricature portrait, by Leslie Ward (&quot;Spy&quot;) is called ''The Pall Mall Magazine'' and is Number 647 in Vanity Fair's &quot;Statesmen&quot; series.&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-14|title=List of Vanity Fair (British magazine) caricatures (1895–1899)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)_caricatures_(1895%E2%80%931899)&amp;oldid=1195518024|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; He was editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 1896–1900.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-09-23|title=Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton&amp;oldid=1176655264|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Frederick_Spencer_Hamilton.&lt;/ref&gt;

For the ball, Lord Frederick Hamilton was dressed
*as a &quot;gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth,&quot; wearing &quot;crimson cloth of gold with jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 36, Col. 3b}}
*as a &quot;Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth. Costume of crimson and cloth of g [sic] with jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1b}}
*&quot;in crimson cloth of gold and jeweled belt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses.&quot; London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 7a}}
*&quot;as a gentleman of the court of Queen Elizabeth, was dressed in a costume of crimson cloth-of-gold, with a jewelled belt.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Memoirs ====

* Hamilton, Frederic [sic] Spencer. ''My Yesterdays'' (3 vols.). Hodder and Stoughton, 1920.
*# ''The Days Before Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/daysbeforeyester00hamiuoft/page/n5/mode/2up.
*# ''Vanished Pomps of Yesterday''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/vanishedpompsofy028823mbp.
*# ''Here, There and Everywhere''. The Internet Archive has this: https://archive.org/details/herethereeverywh0000hami.

[[File:James Hamilton 3rd Duke of Abercorn.png|thumb|alt=Old colored drawing of a man in a 19th-century officer's uniform of the 1st Life Guards with white gloves, a red stripe down the side of his pants and unbuttoned jacket and a hat, holding a white or silver sword under his left arm, facing 1/4 to his right|&quot;He will be the 3rd Duke&quot; (James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton), ''Vanity Fair'' 16 February 1899]]
=== James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton ===
James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton was dressed in a &quot;black velvet tunic; breeches and cloak trimmed jet; large hat, feathers, wig, sword, &amp;c., of the period&quot; of Charles II.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;{{rp|34, Col. 3a}} No photograph of him in costume exists.

A caricature portrait (right) called ''He will be the 3rd Duke'' (James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton) by &quot;Hadge&quot; appeared in the 16 February 1899 issue of ''Vanity Fair'', as Number 739 in its &quot;Men of the Day&quot; series,&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; giving a sense of what he looked like at about the time of the ball.

In 1892 Hamilton joined the 1st Life Guards, so the uniform he is wearing in this portrait is likely that of an officer of the 1st Life Guards.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-01-12|title=James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=1195216640|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hamilton,_3rd_Duke_of_Abercorn.&lt;/ref&gt;

James Hamilton's wife Lady Rosalind Hamilton is not reported as having been present at the ball, perhaps because she was pregnant with her second child and gave birth in August, five weeks later, so she was around 8 months pregnant.

=== Ronald Hamilton ===
Mr. Ronald Hamilton, possibly Ronald James Hamilton, was dressed as a &quot;Gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth, in black velvet trimmed with jet.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1c}}

== Demographics ==

=== Nationality ===
*The title Duke of Abercorn is in the peerage of Ireland; the Marquess of Hamilton is in the peerage of the U.K.

=== Residences ===

==== The Hon. Mrs. Sarah Howard and the Earls of Wicklow ====

* Shelton Abbey, Arklow, Co. Wicklow (east coast of Ireland) (until 1951)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-30|title=Shelton Abbey Prison|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shelton_Abbey_Prison&amp;oldid=1361924427|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Family ==
*James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn (21 January 1811 – 31 October 1885)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*Louisa Russell Hamilton (– March 1905)
#Lady '''Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton''' Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)
#Lady Beatrix Frances Hamilton Lambton (21 July 1835 – 21 January 1871)
#Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton Scott (26 August 1836 – 16 March 1912)
#Lord '''James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn''' (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)
#Lady Katherine Elizabeth Hamilton Edgcumbe (9 January 1840 – 3 September 1874)
#Lady Georgiana Susan Hamilton Turnour (7 July 1841 – 23 March 1913)
#Lord '''Claud John Hamilton''' (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)
#Rt. Hon. Lord Sir '''George Francis Hamilton''' (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)
#Lady Albertha Frances Anne Hamilton Spencer-Churchill (29 July 1847 – 7 January 1932)
#Lord Ronald Douglas Hamilton (17 March 1849 – DVP&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hamilton,_2nd_Duke_of_Abercorn&amp;oldid=969822724|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 6 November 1867)
#Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton Petty-Fitzmaurice, the [[Social Victorians/People/Lansdowne | Marchioness of Lansdowne]] (17 December 1850 – 21 October 1932)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#Lord Cosmo Hamilton (16 April 1853 – 16 April 1853)
#Lord '''Frederick Spencer Hamilton''' (13 October 1856 – 11 August 1928)
#Lord '''Ernest William Hamilton''' (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)


*Harriet Georgiana Louisa Hamilton Anson (6 July 1834 – 23 April 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
*Thomas George Anson, 2nd Earl of Lichfield (15 August 1825 – 7 January 1892)
#Lady Evelyn Anson ( – 2 July 1895)
#Thomas Francis Anson, 3rd Earl of Lichfield (31 January 1856 – 29 July 1918)
#Hon. Sir George Augustus Anson (22 December 1857 – 25 May 1947)
#Major Hon. Henry James Anson (29 December 1858 – 26 February 1904)
#Lady Florence Beatrice Anson (1860 – 25 September 1946)
#Hon. Frederic William Anson (4 February 1862 – 2 April 1917)
#Hon. Claud Anson (11 January 1864 – 25 December 1947)
#Lady Beatrice Anson (1865 – 15 December 1919)
#Hon. Francis Anson (7 March 1867 – 13 April 1928)
#Lady Mary Maud Anson (1869 – 22 September 1961)
#Lady Edith Anson (1870 – 8 October 1932)
#Hon. William Anson (19 April 1872 – 22 June 1926)
#Hon. Alfred Anson (15 April 1876 – 25 March 1944)


*James Hamilton, 2nd Duke of Abercorn (24 August 1838 – 3 January 1913)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;
*Maria Anna Curzon-Howe Hamilton (23 July 1848 – 10 May 1929)&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
#James Albert Edward Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)
#Claud Penn Alexander Hamilton (18 October 1871 – 18 October 1871)
#Charlie Hamilton (10 April 1874 – 10 April 1874)
#'''Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton''' (23 January 1876 – 10 October 1918)
#Claud Francis Hamilton (25 October 1878 – 25 December 1878)
#Gladys Mary Hamilton Forward-Howard (10 December 1880 – 12 March 1917)
#Arthur John Hamilton (20 August 1883 – 6 November 1914)
#(unnamed son) Hamilton (31 October 1886 – 31 October 1886)
#Claud Nigel Hamilton (10 November 1889 – 22 August 1975)&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;


* '''James Albert Edward Hamilton''', Marquess of Hamilton and 3rd Duke of Abercorn (30 November 1869 – 12 September 1953)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;
* Lady Rosalind Cecilia Caroline Bingham (26 February 1869 – 18 January 1958)&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;
*# Lady Mary Cecilia Rhodesia Hamilton (21 January 1896 – 5 September 1984)
*# Lady Cynthia Elinor Beatrix Hamilton (16 August 1897 – 4 December 1972)
*# Lady Katharine Hamilton (25 February 1900 – 28 April 1985)
*# James Edward Hamilton, 4th Duke of Abercorn (29 February 1904 – 4 June 1979)
*# Captain Lord Claud David Hamilton (13 February 1907 – 15 February 1968)


*Claud John Hamilton (20 February 1843 – 26 January 1925)&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
*Carolina Chandos-Pole Hamilton (19 July 1857 – 21 September 1911)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Carolina Chandos-Pole.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p11067.htm#i110663|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#Colonel Gilbert Claud Hamilton (21 April 1879 – 30 March 1943)
#Ida Hamilton (23 July 1883 – November 1970)


*George Francis Hamilton (17 December 1845 – 22 September 1927)&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
*Lady Maud Caroline Lascelles Hamilton (1846 – 14 April 1938)
#'''Ronald James Hamilton''' (26 September 1872 – 22 January 1958)
#Anthony George Hamilton (17 December 1874 – 11 July 1936)
#Robert Cecil Hamilton (31 January 1882 – 31 July 1947)


*Ernest William Hamilton (5 September 1858 – 14 December 1939)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lord Ernest William Hamilton.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p2107.htm#i21062|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-10-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Pamela Campbell Hamilton ( – 11 May 1931)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;
#Guy Ernest Frederick Hamilton (11 November 1894 – 23 November 1914)
#Mary Brenda Hamilton (28 March 1897 – 14 March 1985)
#Jean Barbara Hamilton (6 September 1898 – 2 November 1989)
#John George Peter Hamilton (15 October 1900 – 17 June 1967)


=== Earls of Wicklow ===

* Charles Hamilton (1772 – 29 September 1857)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21387|title=Charles Hamilton. Person Page #2139|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Marianne '''Caroline Tighe''' ( – 29 July 1861)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p62375.htm#i623745|title=Marianne Caroline Tighe. Person Page #62375|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; – 13 March 1892)
*# Caroline Elizabeth Hamilton ( – 31 May 1909)
*# Mary Hamilton
*# Charles William Hamilton (1 April 1802 – 16 February 1880)
*# William Tighe Hamilton (31 March 1807 – )
*# Frederick John Henry Fownes Hamilton (27 July 1816 – 1893)


* Rev. Hon. Francis Howard (12 January 1797 – 16 February 1857)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21391|title=Rev. Hon. Francis Howard. Person Page #2140|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Frances Beresford ( – 17 November 1833)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3227.htm#i32266|title=Frances Beresford. Person Page #3227|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# William George Howard (25 April 1825 – 12 October 1864)
* '''Sarah Hamilton''' (1805&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://catalogue.nli.ie/Collection/vtls000572704|title=Tighe, Hamilton and Howard Papers,|date=1737|website=catalogue.nli.ie|language=English|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; – 13 March 1892)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2141.htm#i21405|title=Sarah Hamilton. Person Page #2141|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# 4 unnamed daughters [per The Peerage; The NLI has 3 daughters]
*# Lady Alice Howard
*# Lady Louisa 'Loulie' Howard
*# Lady Caroline Howard (1836–1923)&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;
*# Charles Francis Arnold Howard, '''5th Earl of Wicklow''' (5 November 1839 – 20 June 1881)
*# Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)


* Cecil Ralph Howard, '''6th Earl of Wicklow''' (26 April 1842 – 24 July 1891)&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* Francesca Maria Chamberlayne ( – 1877)
*# Ralph Howard, 7th Earl of Wicklow (24 December 1877 – 11 October 1946)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2140.htm#i21394|title=Cecil Ralph Howard, 6th Earl of Wicklow. Person Page 2140.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Fanny Catherine Wingfield (c. 1860 – 3 February 1914)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p2139.htm#i21388|title=Fanny Catherine Wingfield. Person Page 2139.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# Hon. Cecil Mervyn Malcolm Howard (18 November 1881 – 16 April 1882)
*# Hon. Hugh Melville Howard (28 March 1883 – 17 February 1919)
* Marcus Francis Beresford (26 December 1862 – 14 December 1896)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3186.htm#i31858|title=Marcus Francis Beresford. Person Page #3186.|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2026-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Memoirs and Archives ==

# The Abercorn Papers: GB 0255 PRONI/D623 (found via https://iar.ie/archive/abercorn-papers). A descriptive list is available to search online at: http://www.proni.gov.uk/. The collection is arranged as follows: D623/A Correspondence D623/B Title deeds and leases D623/C Rentals, accounts and vouchers D623/D Maps, plans, surveys, inventories and valuations D623/E Photographs, illuminations, addresses and albums D623/F Material still at Baronscourt D623/G Miscellaneous
#Alexandra Phyllis Hamilton (#64 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who were present]]) attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her uncle Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton (#84), the Marquess of Hamilton (#657), and a Mr. Ronald Hamilton (#105). Besides these, probably, a Mr. and Mrs. Hamilton also attended.

== Questions and Notes ==
#DVP = decessit vita patris, died while the father was still living
#Mr. Ronald Hamilton cannot be Frederick Hamilton's brother, who should be Lord Ronald Hamilton rather than Mr. Ronald Hamilton, and he died in 1867. He could be this Ronald Hamilton, who would be a Mr. Hamilton: http://www.thepeerage.com/p2163.htm#i21622. He was Lady Alexandra's cousin and nephew of the 1st Duke of Abercorn.
#A Mr. Hamilton is mentioned in the ''Gentlewoman'' article: &quot;Mr. Hamilton (Elizabethan costume), black velvet, trimmed gold.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;{{rp|34, Col. 1c}} But a later reference in this same article to Mr. Ronald Hamilton matches the description in the ''Morning Post'' article, saying he wore black velvet with jet, rather than gold trim: &quot;'''Mr. Ronald Hamilton''' (gentleman of the Court of Queen Elizabeth), black velvet with jet.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; (36, Col. 3b) I believe the other Mr. Hamilton is Mr. [[Social Victorians/People/Cole-Hamilton|Claud Cole-Hamilton]], particularly since Mrs. Hamilton was dressed as Amy Robsart and thus must be Lucy Charlewood Cole-Hamilton because of the description of her costume in the Album of photographs given to the Duchess of Devonshire later.
#Claud John Hamilton is probably who attended the social events, because the other Claud, of whatever generation either died too young or was born too late.
== Footnotes ==
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    <title>Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s</title>
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      <text bytes="35091" sha1="kd582kqszs5kg6b12kofeqwd74gap1w" xml:space="preserve">==Time Line==
[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] 1870s [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==1870==
&quot;Until 1870 all of the money women earned belonged to their husbands, and until 1882 their property did too, even after a divorce or separation.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698 of 1203)

In 1870 Parliament debated and defeated the first bill for women's suffrage, but allowed &quot;women who owned property ... to stand for election to school boards.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (698–699 of 1203)

&quot;The bulk of Irish farmers did not own their land, and instead leased it from landlords, the majority of whom lived in England. In 1870, only 3 percent of agricultural holdings were occupied by owners.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (742 of 1203)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Arthur Sullivan were at the same dinner party in 1870?

Another dinner party had as guests Charles Dickens, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Tenniel and George Du Maurier.

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1871==
Although Queen Victoria had opened Parliament for the first time in February 1866, when people saw her for the first time in years as her open carriage made its way, she was unpopular because it seemed she was not working. Gladstone was Prime Minister.&lt;blockquote&gt;Between 1871 and 1874, eighty-five Republican Clubs were founded in Britain, protesting, among other things, the &quot;expensiveness and uselessness of the monarchy&quot; and Bertie's &quot;immoral example.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;Baird, Julia. ''Victoria the Queen, an Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire''. Random House, 2016. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria-the-queen/id953835024.&lt;/ref&gt; (617 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;&quot;The 1871 Royal Commission on the Contagious Diseases Acts ... declared there was no comparison to be made between prostitutes and their clients: 'With the one sex the offence is committed as a matter of gain, with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (704 of 1203)

=== January ===
Germany is united under King William I of Prussia. Julia Baird says, &quot;At the same time, Italy captured and annexed the Papal States, which had been under the direct rule of the Pope since the 700s and had lost their protector in Napoleon III.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (646 of 1203)

==== 4 January 1871, Wednesday ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;INVITATION BALL.
&lt;p&gt;On Wednesday evening last Major Goodman and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards gave an invitation ball, which was held in the Drapers’ Hall (kindly placed at their disposal by the Drapers’ Company). The following ladies and gentlemen were amongst those who received invitations The Marquis and Marchioness of Hertford; the Earl and Countess of Aylesford; Lady A. N. Finch, Lord Guernsey, and the Hon. Mr. Finch; Lord and Lady Leigh and Miss Leigh; Lord and Lady Henley and Miss Henley, Miss Elwes, Lord and Lady Wrottealey, Lord and Lady Manners; C. N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P.; Captain, Mrs., and Miss Adams; E. Petre, Esq., and Lady Gwendoline Petre; J. Beech, Esq., Mrs. and Miss Beech, and Mr. Beech, jun.; Mr. and Mrs. Turner; Mr. and Mrs. Fetherstone Dilke, Mrs. and the Misses Fetherstone, Mr. Fetherstone, and Mr. Beaumont Fetherstone; Mr. and Mrs. P. A. Muntz; Captain and Mrs. Boultbee, of Knowle; Mr. C. M. Caldecott, Mrs. Caldecott, and the Misses Caldecott; the Rev. A. Fanshawe and Mrs. Fanshawe; Captain and Mrs. Battine; the Rev. S. C. Spencer Smith; the Rev. R. H. Baynes, M.A., vicar of St. Michael’s; the Rev. H. T. Harris, (Christ Church); General and Mr. Richmond Jones; Colonel F. Chaplin, and the Officers of the 4th Dragoon Guards, stationed at Northampton; Captain Thornelow, and the Officers of the Royal Artillery, at Weedon; the officers of the 4th Royal Regiment at Weedon; Mr. and Mrs. E. Wood; Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Wood; the Colonel and officers of the First Warwickshire Militia; Mrs. and Miss Alston, and Mr. Alston, jun., of Elmdon; Mr. and Mrs. F. Paget; Mr. and Mrs. Gulson; Captain Thomson; Captain and Mrs. Raleigh King; Mrs. Phillipson; Lord and Lady Mountgarret; the Honourable Miss Butler; Mr. and Mrs. Courtenay Lord; the Hon. Mrs. Twistleton; Mr. and the Misses Conant; Captain and Mrs. J. Marsland; Major and Mrs. Edlman; Mr. and Mrs. Astley; Mr. T. Lant, Mr. R. Lant and Mr. J. Lant, Mrs. and Miss Lant; Mr. W. T. Cavendish; Mr. and Mrs. A. Rotherham; the Marquis of Ormonde, of the first Life Guards; the Earl of Calludon, of the First Life Guards; Mrs. and the Misses Hobson; Mr P. Hobson, and Mrs. Hobson; Mr. and Mrs. Soames; Mr. and Mrs. Adderley, Sir John Rae Reid; Capt. and Mrs. Townshend, of Caldecote Hall; Lieut.-Colonel Swinfen and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Leeds; Capt. Marsden and the Officers of the 5th Dragoon Guards stationed at Birmingham; Colonel, Mrs., and Miss Bourne; Mr. and Mrs. Wyley Lord; Captain and Mrs. Thursby; Mr. and Mrs Morrice; Lieut.-Colonel Wirgman; Mr. and Mrs. J. Rotherham; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]]; Mr. and Mrs. Rotherham; Mr and Mrs John Sankey and the Misses Sankey; Mrs. and the Misses Murphy; Mr. Bibby (4th Hussars), Captain Gist (7th Hussars), Mr. Gregg (8th Hussars), Mr. Hamilton (7th Dragoon Guards), Colonel Rattray, Mr and Mrs. R. Boyd, &amp;c, &amp;c.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The string band of the 5th Dragoon Guards, under the direction of Mr. Sidney Jones, performed the following selection of music:— Quadrille, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Marian; Galop, Bonderbryllup; Lancers, Knight of St. Patrick; Valse, Hydropaten; Galop, Flick and Flock; Quadrille, Princess of Trebizonde; Valse, the Belle of the Ball; Galop, the Fox Hunters; Valse, the Dragoon Guards; Lancers, the Gaiety; Valse, the Beautiful Danube; Valse, Wiener Kinder; Quadrille, the Fest; Galop, the Village Rose; Valse, the Geraldine; Lancers, Merry Tunes; Galop, Barbe Bleue; Valse, Various; Galop, Glorioso.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Invitation Ball.&quot; ''Coventry Standard'' 6 January 1871, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000683/18710106/100/0004. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== February ===

==== Birmingham Tennis Court Club Ball ====
1871 February 17, Friday, the &quot;bachelors of the Tennis Court Club&quot; hosted a ball in Birmingham:&lt;blockquote&gt;LEAMINGTON.&lt;p&gt;

B&lt;small&gt;ACHELORS'&lt;/small&gt; B&lt;small&gt;ALL&lt;/small&gt;.&lt;p&gt;— Last night the bachelors of the Tennis Court Club gave a grand ball at the Royal Assembly Rooms, Regent Street. The ball was one of the most brilliant of the season, nearly four hundred of the ''élite'' of the town and neighbourhood having accepted the invitation of the bachelors. The ballroom was specially fitted up for the occasion, and a splendid supper was served in the adjoining rooms, where refreshments were also provided. Coote and Tiney's band was specially engaged for the occasion, and played a selection of the newest and most popular dance music. Amongst the distinguished guests present were — The High Sheriff and Mrs. J. T. Arkwright, Lady Arbuthnott, Lord and Lady Conyers, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], Viscount and Viscountess Mountgarret and the Hon. Miss Butler, Sir John and Lady Blois, Sir Thomas Biddulph, the Hon. Miss Somerville, Sir William and Lady Fairfax, the Hon. Charles L. Butler, Rev. Sir John Rae, General and Mrs. Richmond Jones, Major Eldman, Major and Mrs. James Ashton, Major and Mrs. Boothby, Colonel Ruttie, Colonel Duberly, Colonel and Mrs. Machen, Colonel Rattray, Capt. and Mrs. Kennedy, Capt. W. J. Hall, Capt. Hodge, Capt. and Mrs. Morgan, Capt. and Mrs. Pearse, Capt. Roberts, Capt. Story, Mr. and Mrs. Featherstone Dilke (Maxstoke Castle) and Miss Dixie, Mr. C. M., Miss, and Miss M. A. Caldecott (Holbrooke Grange), Mr. and Mrs. J. Dugdale (Wroxhall Abbey), Mr. E. Greaves, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. C. L. Adderley (Hams Hall), and Capt. and Mrs. Hatherall. Several of the officers from the dragoons and artillery at Coventry and Birmingham were also present. The bachelors who gave the ball were twenty-eight in number.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Leamington.&quot; &quot;District News.&quot; ''Birmingham Morning News'' 18 February 1871, Saturday: 7 [of 8, print and digital], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005826/18710218/114/0007. Print and digital title are the same.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Another description of this same event, the Bachelors' Ball at the Leamington Spa:&lt;blockquote&gt;The bachelors’ ball at Leamington Spa, which took place on the 17th inst., was a greater success than ever. It was held as usual in the Assembly Rooms, which, by the bye, might be better adapted to such purposes. Theyare not so bad as far as the ball room goes, but to reach the supper room you have to make a pilgrimage up one of the steepest and most uncomfortable staircases ever seen; still, however difficult the journey, a safe arrival will repay one. The room was very prettily decorated, and most sumptuous fare provided. The following is a list of the bachelors who gave the ball: Mr Neville Bagot, Mr Ramsay Clarke, Mr Erasmus Galton, Mr C. H. Gregg (8th Hussars), Mr Ralph C. Gregg, Mr William Gillett, Mr Thomlinson Grant, Col. Hammond, R.A., Capt. Hull, Mr Wm. Harrison, Mr Pulsford Hobson, Mr Sydney Hobson, Mr F. C. Lister Kay, Viscount St. Lawrence, M.P., Capt. Maxwell Lyte (7th Dragoon Guards), Mr Richard Lant, Mr John Lant, Mr Oswald Milne, Mr W. W. Moore, Mr Thomas Norman, Mr Hamilton Osborne, Capt. John Paynter, Capt. Pullin, Mr George Rennie, Mr Alex. G. Stuart, Mr J. H. Sanders, Mr Edmund Vyner, Captain Vandeleur; and nothing that they could do was wanting to make it a most complete success. The frequenters of the subscription balls could scarcely recognise the rendezvous of their fortnightly meetings. A porch had been erected over the entrance in the parade, and the corridors all round the dancing room carpeted with crimson and prettily decorated. Banks of flowers had been arranged in every available corner of the ball room, and a number of mirrors hung against the wall reflected the gay scene. Coote and Tinney’s band played a charming selection, and dancing was kept up with much spirit to a late hour. The company was a large one, the toilettes exceedingly pretty. Among those present were Lord and Lady Conyers, Sir William and Lady Fairfax, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], Viscount and Viscountess Mount-Garrett, [[Social Victorians/People/Ormonde|Hon. Miss Butler]], Sir John Rae Reid, Hon. Mary Somerville, &amp;c. The whole week was a gay one. Now heat has set in there is an unusual number of public lectures, and Mr and Mrs Howard Paul and the Tyrolese singers have had performances during this week. The Concordia Choir held their third concert on Saturday last, and on Monday there was an amateur performance of &quot;Maritana&quot; and &quot;The Captain is not a-Miss&quot; at the Royal Music Hall, in aid of the volunteer corps. The Warwickshire, North Warwickshire, the Bicester, the Cotherstone, the Pytchley, and Mr W. W. Tailby’s hounds are meeting four or five days in the week each, and having air sport.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable Entertainments.&quot; ''The Queen'' 25 February 1871, Saturday: 19 [of 24], Col. 3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18710225/121/0019. Print title: The Queen, ''The Lady's Newspaper'', p. 133.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== March ===

=== April ===

==== 18 April 1871 ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Karl Marx “was commissioned by the General Council of the International to write a pamphlet about the Paris [377–378] Commune.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Smee, Sebastian. ''Paris in Ruins: Love, War, and the Birth of Impressionism''. W. W. Norton, 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|377–378 of 667}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===May===

==== 9 May 1871, Tuesday, Queen's Drawing-Room ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;THE QUEEN'S DRAWING-ROOM.

The Queen held a Drawing-room at Buckingham Palace on Tuesday afternoon. The Priuce of Wales, Prince Arthur, Prince Leopold, and Princess Beatrice were present. Her Majesty, accompanied by the Prince of Wales and the other members of the royal family, entered the Throne Room shortly after three o'clock. The Queen wore a black moire antique dress with a train, long white tulle veil with a coronet of diamonds. Her Majesty also wore a necklace of diamonds and amethysts, the Riband and Star of the Order of the Garter, the Orders of Victoria and Albert and Louise of Prussia, and the Saxe Coburg and Gotha Family Order. Princess Beatrice wore a dress of white tulle over a rich white silk petticoat looped up with lilies of the valley and apple blossom; ornaments — pearls and diamonds.

The presentations to Her Majesty were about 280 in number, and included the following:— Mrs Atlay, by the Countess Grey; Miss Backhouse, by her mother, Mrs Backhouse; Miss Charlesworth, by her aunt, Frances Lady Hawke; Miss Backhouse Fox, by her aunt, Mrs Backhouse; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], by her mother, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|the Hon. Mrs Howard]]; the Hon. Gwendoline Fitz-Alan Howard, by the Duchess of Sutherland; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Alice Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Louisa Howard]], by her mother, Hon. Mrs Howard; Miss Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Miss Agnes Howard (of Corby), by the Hon. Mrs Philip Stourton; Sir Henry Ingilby, Bart., by Earl Russell; Mrs Frank Lascelles, by Lady Edward Cavendish; Mrs Gerald Liddell, marriage, by the Countess of Normanby.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Official News.&quot; ''Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer'' 11 May 1871, Thursday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000686/18710511/074/0003. Same print title and p.n.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== 24 May 1871, Wednesday: Derby Day ====
Baron Rothschild's Favonius won. The Prince of Wales attended.

==== 25 May 1871, Thursday, Dinner Party Hosted by Mr. and Mrs. Charltons ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Mr. and Mrs. Charlton, of Hesleyside, entertained at dinner, on Thursday evening, at 47, Princesgate — his Excellency the Spanish Minister, Count de Beaufort Spontin, Lord and Lady Houghton and the Hon. Miss Milnes, Lord and Lady Acton, the Hon. Lady Williamson, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Lady Caroline Howard]], Mrs. and Miss Milner Gibson, Viscount Burke, Lord Beaumont, Lord Campbell, the Master of Herries, Major Fife, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable World.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 27 May 1871, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 6c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18710527/019/0005. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;June
July
August
September
===October===
'''October 1871'''&lt;blockquote&gt;At Londesborough Lodge near Scarborough, where Lady Londesborough gave a royal house party in October 1871, not only [ 41/42 ] were the bathrooms few but the drains seeped into the drinking water. Several guests, including the Prince [of Wales] and his groom and Lord Chesterfield, contracted typhoid fever. When Chesterfield and the groom died, the doctors abandoned hope for the Prince.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|41–42}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Prince of Wales recovered on 14 December 1871.

November
December

==1872==
January
February
March
April
===May===
'''29 May 1872, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
===August===
'''August 1872''': The &quot;dance on the cruiser Ariadne&quot; probably occurred in August 1872:&lt;blockquote&gt;When his [the Prince of Wales'] brother, the Duke of Edinburgh, married the attractive Grand Duchess Marie, daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, her family made a fuss because she was not granted precedence above the Princess of Wales. Albert Edward soothed ruffled feelings by inviting the Tsarevitch and his wife Marie Feodorovna (who was Alexandra's sister) to stay for two months and be entertained at Cowes. ...&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

... At the dance on the cruiser Ariadne which the Prince gave in honour of the Tsarevitch and his Grand Duchess,&quot; Lord Randolph Churchill met the 19-year-old &quot;Miss Jennie Jerome of New York.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42–43}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

September
October
November
December

==1873==

=== January ===

==== 13 January 1873, Monday ====

==== Ball at the Chief Secretary's Lodge ====
On Tuesday, 14 January 1873, the Dublin Evening Telegraph reported that the Marquis of Hartington's ball had taken place the evening before.&lt;blockquote&gt;The Marquis of Hartington gave a ball last evening at the Chief Secretary's Lodge, to their Excellencies the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess Spencer, who were accompanied by the Dowager Countess Spencer, the Ladies Sarah and Victoria Spencer and the Hon Robert Spencer, Lord and Lady Charles Bruce, and Major Stirling, A D C.&lt;p&gt;

The following had the honour of receiving invitations to meet their Excellencies — The Duke of Leinster, the Marquis and Marchioness of Kildare, the Ladies Fitzgerald, the Marquis and Marchioness of Drogheda, the Earl and Countess of Listowel, Lord and Lady Edward Cavendish, the Earl of Charleville, the Lord Chancellor and Lady O'Hagan, Viscount, Viscountess, the Hon Misses, and Hon Henry Monck; the Archbishop of Dublin, the Hon Mrs and the Misses Trench; Lord Talbot de Malahide and the Hon Francis Talbot, Lord and Lady Sandhurst and Captain Bang, A D C; Lady Cloncurry, Hon Emily and Hon Mary Lawless, Viscount, Viscountess, Hon Georgiana, and Hon Beatrice [de?] Vesci; Lord and Lady Kilmaize [?], Hon Gertrude [?] Browze, Lord and Lady Ventry, Hon Norah Westenra, Lord and Lady Athlumney, Lord, Lady, and Hon D Plunket, M P; Viscountess and the Hon. Miss Netterivlle, Capt the Hon Mrs Vesey, Captain and Lady Julia Follett, Sir Arthur and Lady Olive Guiness and the Ladies White, the Hon H W L Corry, Lord and Lady and the Hon Miss O'Neill, Viscount Hawarden, the Hon Florence Maude, the Hon. Clementina Maude, the Hon Jenico and Mrs Preston, the Hon Henry Leeson, Colonel and the Hon Mrs Caulfield, Mr and the Hon Mrs Robert Hobart, Captain, Lady Mary and Miss Lindsay; Mr Ion [?] Trent Hamilton, M P; Mr Bagwell; the Hon Mrs and the Misses Bagwell, and Mr Bagwell; Colonel the Hon L and Mrs Curzon Smyth, Mr, Lady Margaret, and the Misses Stronge [?]; Mr and the Hon Mrs O'Hagan, Hon Charles Bourke, Hon Mrs Alfred and Lady Kathleen Bury, [[Social Victorians/People/Abercorn|Hon Mrs, Lady Alice, and Lady Louisa Howard]]; Captain, the Hon Mrs, and Miss Donaldson; Dr and Miss Bans, Mrs Grattan Bellew, Sir Edward and Miss Borough, Mr Arthur Cane, Sir Dominic, Lady, and Miss Corrigan; Mr Corrigan, Mr and Mrs Gustavus Cornwall and Miss Cornwall, Mr D'Arcy, M P, and Mrs D'Arcy; Mr Baron Dowse [?], and Mrs and Miss Dowse, Mr Baron Deasy and Mrs Deasy, Dr, Mrs, and Miss de Ricci; Dr and Miss Hatchell, Sir George and Lady Hudson, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Huband; Mr Arthur Huband, Miss Caroline Huband, Mr and Mrs Arthur Hume, Dr Hughes, Mr Henry Jephsen and Miss Jephsen, Mr Kearney and the Misses Kearney, Captain Kearney, A D C; Captain Lascelles, A D C; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Kirwan; Mr Justice Lawson and Mrs Lawson, Mr and Mrs W Le Fanu, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Lentaigne; Sir George L'Estrange and the Misses L'Estrange, the Lord and Lady Mayoress, and the Misses Mackey; the Lord Chief Justice Monahan, Mrs and Miss Monahan; Sir J, Lady, and Miss Power; Mr John Talbot Power, M P; Col, Mrs, and Miss Radcliffe; the Master of the Rolls, Mrs and Miss Sullivan; Capt and Mrs Moorsom, A D C; General Sir Thomas and Lady Steel, Captain and Mrs Brownrigg, A D C, Mr Granville Milner, Capt, Mrs and Miss Talbot, Colonel, Mrs, and the Misses White; Sir John Stewart Wood, Lady and the Misses Wood; Mrs and the Misses Williams, Mr Justice Fitzgerald and the Hon Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr Justice Barry and Mrs Barry, Mr Sergeant Sherlock, M P, Mrs and Miss Sherlock; Mr Sheriock, the Right Hon W H Conan, M P, and Mrs Cogan; Mr Justice Keogh and Mrs Keogh, Mr Keogh, Capt Keogh, R N; Lord Chief Baron and Miss Pigott, Dr, Mrs, and Miss Nugent; General Wardlaw, Colonel M'Kerlie, Mr Sergeant and Mrs and Miss Armstrong; Col, Mrs, and the Misses Maude; Col, Mrs, and Miss Hillier; Mr Heron, M P; Mr and Mrs Watters, Col and Mrs Wynyard, Dr and the Misses Kennedy, the Attorney General and Mrs Palles, the Solicitor General and Mrs Law, Col, Mrs, and Miss Lake; Lady and the Misses Butler, Mr Butler, Col and Mrs Colthurst Vesey, and Miss Walton; Mr, Lady Fanny and Miss Lambert; Mr E C Guinness, Mr and Mrs MMorer O'Ferrall, Mr and Mrs Leonard Morrogh, Sir Bernard and Lady Burke, Mr G and Mrs G Brooke and Miss Brooke, Mr and Mrs Roe, Mr Vance, M P, Mrs and Miss Vance; Col and Mrs Primrose, Lieut Col Ferdall [?], Col and Mrs Goodlake and Miss Alexander, Mr Alison, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Barton, Mr Justice Flanagan, Mrs and Miss Flanagan, Mer J. N. Lentaigne, Mr Johnson, Captain Harrison, Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Maturin; Mr Justice Morris and Mrs Morris, Mr and Mrs Mazlere [?] Brady, Major, Mrs, and Miss Wilkinson; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Donnelly; Mr and Mrs Cruise, Mrs Power, Mr Braon Fitzgerald and Mrs Fitzgerald, Mr Henry Yates Thompson, Mr Courtenay Boyle, Colonel Forster, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Taylor, Mr Bland and Mrs Godfrey Bland, Mr and Miss Dillon, Mr and Mrs Wallace, Mr M'Kenna, Mr Cullinane, Mr Armstrong, Mr C E [?] Dobbin, Mr J A Blake, Major and Mrs Papillon, Capt and Mrs Keane, Mr E Pretty, Mr, Mrs John L O Ferrall and Miss O'Ferrall, Mrs and Miss Walsh, Mr and Mrs R Howard Brook, Mrs and Miss Brook, Mrs and the Misses Blake, Mr and Mrs J Warren, Sir John Gray, M P, Lady, and Miss Gray; Colonel and Mrs Frank Chaplin, Mr, Mrs, and Miss Hemphill; Sir R, Lady and Miss Kane, Mrs and Miss Courtenay, Mr Arthur Courtenay, Mr G Courtenay, Mr E Hardtop, A D C; Mr Bellew, Dr and Mrs Nedley, Dr and Mrs Newell, Mr and Mrs Freeman, Mr and Mrs Geale, Captain Hutten, A D C; Mr and Mrs Adair and Miss Wadsworth, Captain and Mrs J M Benthall, Sir R, Lady, and the Misses M'Causlend [?]; Mr, Mrs, and the Misses Newell Barron; Mr Hawkins, Colonel Goodlake and the Officers of the Coldstream Guards; Captain Spain, R N, and the Officers (4) of her Majesty's ship Vanguard; Colonel Radcliffe and Officers (4), Royal Artillery; Colonel Spade and Officers (4) 1st King's Dragoon Guards; Colonel Ainslie and Officers (4), 1st Royal Dragoons; Colonel Thompson and Officers (4), 14th Hussars; Colonel Ross and Officers (4), 4th Battalion Rifle Brigade; Colonel Hawkins and Officers (4), Royal Engineers; Colonel Gloster and Officers (4), 97th Regiment; Lieutenant-Colonel Maunsell and Officers (4), 13th Regiment.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashionable.&quot; ''Dublin Evening Telegraph'' 14 January 1873, Tuesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 7a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002093/18730114/044/0004. Print title ''The Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;February
March
April

===May===
'''28 May 1873, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1874==
January
February
March
April
===May===

==== 1874 May, Early ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;As monarchists’ hopes flared, the Catholic Church, too, enjoyed a conspicuous revival. The National Assembly approved a design for a new basilica for Paris. Intended as an act of collective atonement, Sacré-Coeur was to perch atop Montmartre, immediately above where Nadar’s balloons had been launched and where the radicals’ insurrection had broken out. Excavations began in early May 1874 ....

But the focus of the penance the basilica was intended to embody gradually shifted from the moral decline of French society in general to the despicable excesses of the Commune. In 1872 Archbishop Darboy’s successor claimed to have had a vision as he climbed the Butte Montmartre. The clouds dispersed, and he realized that it was there, “where the martyrs” were (he meant the murdered generals Lecomte and Clément-Thomas), that a new church should be built. And when the Assembly voted to proceed with the construction, legislators specified that its purpose was to “expiate the crimes of the Commune.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; (464 of 667)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===June===
'''3 June 1874, Wednesday''': Derby Day

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''8 December 1874, Tuesday''': &quot;CHATSWORTH, Tuesday, December 8th, 1874. — We are come to the last slide of the Chatsworth magic lantern: the Duke of Cambridge and his equerry, a funny little man called Tyrwhitt, of no particular age, in a grey wig; Lord Carlingford and Ly. Waldegrave, the Spencers, Mr. Leveson, Cavendish.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ladylucycavendish.blogspot.com/2010/12/08dec1874-chatsworth-magic-lantern.html|title=Lady Lucy Cavendish: 08Dec1874, The Chatsworth Magic Lantern|last=H|first=Denise|date=2010-12-04|website=Lady Lucy Cavendish|access-date=2025-06-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==1875==
Disraeli's progressive legislation for labor rights:&lt;blockquote&gt;In 1875, he passed a series of enlightened acts protecting labor rights, arguing they were as important as property rights. Two of the laws ensured that workers would have the same recourse as employers when contracts were breached, and made peaceful picketing legal, protecting unions from charges of conspiracy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (578 of 1203)&lt;/blockquote&gt;After women who owned property were allowed by Parliament to stand for local school-board elections in 1870, &quot;Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, the first woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain — in 1865 — stood and was elected to her local board five years later.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (199 of 1203)

The relationship between Swinburne and Lord Houghton:&lt;blockquote&gt;...not all Lord Houghton's children appreciated the catholicity of &quot;Papa's&quot; taste in friends: &quot;Swinburne (in a very excited state) came in in the evening,&quot; wrote Florence Milnes to her brother in 1875: &quot;He is madder than ever, to my astonishment he flopped down on one knee in front of me, &amp; announced that my hair had grown darker. This was rather embarrassing, and he is also so deaf now, which does not make it easier to talk to him.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Pope-Hennessy Lord Crewe.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|5}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''26 May 1875, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales attended, as did a number of others of the royal family, including Princess Louise and Lorne.

June
July
===August===
'''August through October 1875''' Richard Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and son Robert Milnes toured the U.S. and Canada:&lt;blockquote&gt;They set off in the steamer s.s Sarmatian from Liverpool in August 1875, stopping at Ireland to pick up the usual load of emigrants bound for the U.S.A. The most interesting among the passengers was 'Mr. Butler, author of Erewhon, who is very amusing and clever though infidel,' but, although he played whist with Samuel Butler, the young man was far more interested in the Eustace Smiths (parents of his friend W. H. Smith), and in a Canadian family named Macpherson, the youngest of whose two daughters, the dark-eyed Isobel, caught his fancy: he saw them afterwards in Toronto, and when they parted she gave him two larger than carte-de-visite photographs of herself, he gave her a smaller one of himself together with the inevitable volume of his father's verse.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|10}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;September
October
November
December

==1876==
Disraeli pushed through the Cruelty to Animals Act in order to please Queen Victoria. This act &quot;forced researchers to demonstrate that any experiments with animals involving pain were absolutely necessary, and ensured they would be anesthetized if so.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (679 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''11 May 1876''': In the midst of the Aylesford scandal, the Prince of Wales returned from a journey to Egypt and India, etc.:&lt;blockquote&gt;However harassed and exhausted, the Prince and Princess of Wales would put up a good show. Within an hour of their arrival home they set forth to attend a gala performance at Covent Garden Opera House. It was a brave decision to face the public and allow an immediate opportunity for demonstration. The Prince and Princess were rewarded when the audience rose to its feet to give them a standing ovation before the start of every act, as well as at the end, of Verdi's Ballo in Maschera.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|63}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''27 May 1877''': Lily Langtry:&lt;blockquote&gt;Her big moment on May 27, 1877, when Sir Allen Young, the arctic explorer, invited her to late supper in his house, where it had been arranged that the Prince of Wales should meet her after the opera. The result was all that could have been expected. Mrs. Langtry became the Prince's first openly recognised mistress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|69}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''31 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day. The Prince and Princess of Wales did not attend, as he was ill.

June
July
August
September
October
November
December

==1877==
&quot;In 1877, unemployment was 4.7 percent; by 1879, it had risen to 11.4 percent.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; (690 of 1203)

January
February
March
April
===May===
'''30 May 1877, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

June
July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''15 December 1877'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On Dec. 15, 1877, the Queen honoured Lord Beaconsfield, the Premier, with a visit at Hughenden Manor. Her Majesty, accompanied by Princess Beatrice and attended by General Ponsonby and the Marchioness of Ely, left Windsor at 12.40 and proceeded by special train to High Wycombe, which was reached at 1.15. The Premier received the Queen at the station. A lofty triumphal arch spanned the entrance to the station-yard, and beneath this the royal party drove into the gaily decorated little town. The reception along the route was of the heartiest, and the drive of two miles to Hughenden was one long triumph. Lord Beaconsfield, who had preceded the party, welcomed the Queen at his own door. Lunch was served, and her Majesty remained about two hours. Before leaving she planted a memorial tree.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Queen's Glorious Reign.&quot; ''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, May 27, 1899; pp. 757–765?; Issue 3136. Queen's Glorious Reign [Supplement]: 762?&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==1878==
January
February
March
April
May
===June===
'''5 June 1878, Wednesday''': Derby Day.

July
August
September
October
===November===
'''8 November 1878''': from the journal of George, Duke of Cambridge:&lt;blockquote&gt;''November'' 8. — Gave farewell diner to the Lornes; Louise and Lorne, Augusta, Mary and Francis, Arthur, Leopold, Gleichens, J. Macdonald and self, and played at Nap afterwards. It was a good and nice little dinner.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sheppard, Edgar, Ed. ''George, Duke of Cambridge: A Memoir of His Private Life, Based on the Journals and Correspondence of His Royal Highness''. Vol. 2, 1871–1904. New York: Longmans, Green, 1906. http://books.google.com/books?id=dFoMAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;December

==1879==
===January===
'''12 January 1879'''&lt;blockquote&gt;On 12 January 1879 Robert Milnes came of age, an event celebrated at Fryston by a tenants' ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''28 January 1879''': Brett &quot;Harte kicked off his tour at the Crystal Palace in Sydenham on January 28, 1879.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nissen, Alex. ''Brett Harte: Prince and Pauper''. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|174}}

February
March

===April===
'''Early April 1879''' or so, probably, Bret Harte got &quot;an invitation to dine the same evening with Arthur Sullivan and the Prince of Wales&quot; as a dinner in Birmingham where Harte met T. Edgar Pemberton.&lt;ref&gt;Scharnhorst, Gary. ''Bret Harte: Opening the American Literary West''. Norman, OK: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|152}}
===May===
'''28 May 1879, Wednesday''': Derby Day; the Prince and Princess of Wales attended.

===June===
'''June 1879''', Robert Milnes became engaged to &quot;Sibyl Marcia, a daughter of a North-country baronet, Sir Frederick Graham of Netherby.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|18}} Parties must have followed.

July
August
September
October
November
===December===
'''28 December 1879''': The Tay Bridge Disaster: The Tay Bridge collapsed with a train on it. The weather was very bad, with gale-force winds and rain.

The ''Times'' reported that the average high temperature for the week ending December 31, 1879, was 53° F. and the low was 20° F.

In his column &quot;What the World Says&quot; in the 21 January 1880 World, Edmund Yates writes the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;How am I to describe better the magnificence of the Earl and Countess of Rosslyn’s ball at Euston Lodge last month, than by calling attention to the fact that M. Carlo, the eminent Knightsbridge coiffeur, arrived early in the day to crimp and powder the lacqueys? My informant adds, however, that the curled darlings were rather the worse for the festivities towards night. Was it not enough to turn their heads in every sense of the word?&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Edmund Yates, &quot;What the World Says,&quot; ''The World: A Journal for Men and Women''.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|21 Jan. 1880, p. 8, col. b.}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''31 December 1879''': Edmund Yates, editor of The World: A Journal for Men and Women, in his column &quot;What the World Says,&quot; describes a private viewing at the Grosvenor Gallery:&lt;blockquote&gt;The private view at the Grosvenor on the last day of the year gave people something to do on a desperately wet afternoon. The artistic dresses were perhaps in greater force than ever; indeed the faces and the hair and the attitudes pursued me to my bed, and gave me many a nightmare. I suppose the plain woman of all time has had the ambition to be looked at: centuries of failure have at last been crowned with a real success. Besides the Cimabue Browns there was an interesting menagerie of real lions, artistic, literary, and clerical. The artists were numerous, and their host and hostess seemed to enjoy themselves very thoroughly.

Frequenters of the picture private views have a new sensation this winter. Last season they mobbed beauty: now hideously-attired unkempt dowdiness provokes the stare. The prize for the new style seems generally awarded to a rhubarb coloured flannel Ulster and a cart-wheel beaver hat, which pervaded both the private views last week. [2 private views last week, one at the Grosvenor]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|7 Jan. 1880, p. 9}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The official premiere of ''The Pirates of Penzance'' occurred in New York City on 31 December 1879 at the Fifth Avenue Theatre, to establish international copyright. Gilbert and Sullivan were there with the cast. The performance was a social event: attending were Mrs. Vanderbilt and Mrs. Astor.

==Works Cited==
{{reflist}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818073</id>
      <parentid>2817990</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T13:58:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Applications */</comment>
      <origin>2818073</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9878" sha1="9isrgrzdwbp2vo7rh8nfp4gv8vr1nod" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260710.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming language]]

&lt;/br&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>How might the world be different if the PLO had followed Gandhi?</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>304578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818089</id>
      <parentid>2677684</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T21:09:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidMCEddy</username>
        <id>218607</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The nonviolence of the First Intifada */ question about the date of Rabin's statement about Palestinians' managing their own security</comment>
      <origin>2818089</origin>
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      <text bytes="67555" sha1="jrot63bxj3g87r8m4liel9zy0pf2ary" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 

:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- and raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|''''“Discuss”'''' page]].''  

::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' 

== Abstract == 

This article evaluates how the world might be different if the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1964, had sought a redress of grievances through nonviolence rather than violence. This analysis rests on a summary of research comparing the relative effectiveness of violence and nonviolence and the role of the media in conflict. It concludes with four suggestions for ending the cycle of violence and building a better future for all: (1) Demand equal protection of the laws. (2) Limit &quot;state secrets privilege&quot; to make it harder for governments to deny equal protection and lie about it with impunity. (3) Support training in nonviolence for all. (4) Citizen-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits to make it harder for major media to encourage their audiences to support counterproductive actions.

== Introduction == 

How might the world be different if the [[w:Palestine Liberation Organization|Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), founded in 1964, had been committed to nonviolence, following [[w:Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]], [[w:Martin Luther King Jr.|King]], and [[w:Abdul Ghaffar Khan|Badshah Khan]] rather than [[w:George Washington|George Washington]] and [[w:Fidel Castro|Fidel Castro]]?

Nothing can be said about this for certain, except that the world would be different. However, careful study of history suggests that the world would most likely be better for virtually all Jews and Palestinians.&lt;ref&gt;This might be regarded as '[[w:counterfactual history| counterfactual history]]&quot;, which, especially in analyses like the present, invites people to consider the implications of alternative approaches to problems in light of research on human behavior and political economy.&lt;/ref&gt; 

This should ''NOT'' be construed as a criticism of [[w:Yassir Arafat|Yassir Arafat]] nor of anyone who supported the PLO nor any other organization that has adopted violent tactics such as [[w:Hamas|Hamas]] since 2023-10-07: They were following the example of [[w:George Washington|George Washington]]. How could they go wrong? 

Our answer to this apparent contradiction, discussed briefly below, is that few of the violent revolutions since 1776 have had the success attributed to the American Revolution, because the subsequent success of the US was achieved ''in spite of'', rather than because of, the violence of the American Revolution. The traditional narrative of the American Revolution has been written to please people who control most of the money for the media -- to the detriment of everyone else. Over 50 percent of adult white males could vote before the revolution, and the violence of the revolution did not change that, as discussed below.&lt;ref&gt;Per quotes from Gaughan (2022) in [[#Violence and nonviolence in the American Revolution|§ Violence and nonviolence in the American Revolution]].&lt;/ref&gt; 

Similarly, the nonviolence of the [[w:First Intifada|First Intifada]] led to the election of [[w:Yitzhak Rabin|Yitzhak Rabin]] as Prime Minister of Israel on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. That led to the [[w:Oslo Accords|Oslo Accords]] and the current [[w:State of Palestine|State of Palestine]]. We claim that if the Palestinians had maintained nonviolent discipline, the two-state solution promised at Oslo would likely have worked to benefit all.

Few supporters of Israel have any substantive understanding of the extent of the mistreatment of Palestinians by Israeli military and settlers, because the media they find credible rarely if ever provide balanced coverage of it. 

However, the nonviolence of the First Intifada convinced enough Israeli voters that they could live in peace with Palestinians that Yitzhak Rabin won an election in 1992 to become Prime Minister of Israel on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. Most nonviolent campaigns have produced similar results, as discussed below. 

Tragically, subsequent violence by both sides has created obstacles to honest consideration by each of how their opposition perceives them. Palestinians during the First Intifada and since have seen throwing rocks as relatively nonviolent. That is ''not'' how most supporters of Israel have perceived that. In 2022 the Israeli ambassador to United Nations [[w:Gilad Erdan|Gilad Erdan]] complained that the world has been silent in the face of Palestinian “terror attacks with rocks” against Israelis, as he held up a rock the size of a brick. He noted that a rock like that could kill someone in a car speeding along a highway.&lt;ref&gt;Erdan's complaint was reported seriously by Lazeroff (2022) in the ''Jerusalem Post'', but was ridiculed by Willliams (2022) in the ''Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs''. Pressman (2017) said that throwing rocks should be considered &quot;unarmed violence&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; 

This suggests that the nonviolence of the First Intifada, discussed below, might have been more effective if Palestinians had not thrown rocks: The shift in Israeli public opinion that got Yitzhak Rabin elected as Prime Minister would likely have been greater, and the international pressure on Israel would also likely have been greater. 

A vigorous commitment to nonviolence has worked in the past, even within the conflict between Jews and Palestinians. It seems to offer the only realistic prospect for breaking the cycle of violence and building a better future for both Palestinians and Jews.  

{{Blockquote|text=
''Oh, would some Power the gift give us''

''To see ourselves as others see us!''

''It would from many a blunder free us''
|multiline=yes
|author = [[w:Robert Burns|Robert Burns (1786)]]
|title = [[w:To a Louse|''To a Louse'']]}}

== Experts == 

There is a substantial body of research dating back at least to the 1950s that most experts can be beaten by simple rules of thumb developed by intelligent lay people. Kahneman and Klein (2009) found that, 

* ''Expert intuition is learned from frequent, rapid, high quality feedback.''

Few professions have that. [[Expertise of military leaders and national security experts|In combat, military leaders can develop expert intuition on how to deliver death and destruction to designated targets.]] Political leaders develop expert intuition on how to say things that please people who control most of the money for the media.

However, 

* ''humanity needs broadly shared peace and prosperity for the long term.'' 

How can we obtain that when the processes by which political and military leaders are selected may be clandestinely hostile to that end? 

For example, to what extent is the world better or worse off for the US-led invasions of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003? What changes in the structure of the US and international political economy might produce better outcomes with crudely similar problems in the future?  

This article focuses largely on the cycle of violence that has plagued Israel-Palestine since the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. However the section on &quot;Implications for the future&quot; below suggests reforms that could have broader implications.

With members of the Knesset calling for using nuclear weapons in Gaza&lt;ref&gt;Khalid (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and concerns about the conflict between Israel and Iran spinning out of control,&lt;ref&gt;Belkaïd (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; any reasonable expense for alternatives that might stabilize this conflict might be very wise investment, even with substantial uncertainties about the outcomes.

== Research comparing violence and nonviolence == 

Twenty-first century research can help us estimate the probability distribution of alternative outcomes in violent and nonviolent conflict. Most relevant in this regard is the inventory of all the major violent and nonviolent governmental change efforts of the twentieth century compiled by Erica Chenoweth and Maria Stephan (2011). They identified over 200 violent revolutions and over 100 nonviolent campaigns, each of which attracted over 1,000 people at some point. 53 percent of the nonviolent campaigns were successful while only 25 percent of the violent revolutions were. 

[[File:Democratization 1 year after vs. 1 year before twentieth century revolutions.svg|thumb|upright=2|Figure 1. Democratization 1 year after (vertical scale) vs. 1 year before (horizontal scale) the end of twentieth century revolutions]]

Probably more important than the official success rate is the impact on democracy: Chenoweth and Stephan (2011) found that on average, nonviolent campaigns ''improved'' the level of democracy, while violent revolutions had no statistically significant impact on democracy. This was true whether the campaigns won or lost. The gains for democracy tended to be greater among the nonviolent campaigns that won than among those that lost. However, even the nonviolent campaigns that lost on average pushed their governments to be more democratic, to share power more broadly; see Figure 1.

Similarly, Chenoweth and Schock (2015) noted that the presence of a &quot;[[w:radical flank effect|radical flank]]&quot;, contemporary violence pursuing similar aims, tended to ''reduce'' the probability of success. See also Chenoweth (2016).

== The nonviolence of the First Intifada == 

The NAVCO 1.1 dataset&lt;ref&gt;Chenoweth (2019a).&lt;/ref&gt; compiled by Chenoweth and Stephan includes five campaigns in Palestine or involving Palestinians: 

# &quot;'''[[w:1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|Palestinian Arab Revolt]]'''&quot; in Palestine against &quot;Pro-Jewish British policies&quot; 1936-1939 coded as violent with limited success but with no change in Polity IV scores. 
# &quot;'''[[w:Mandatory Palestine#Beginning of Zionist Insurgency|Jewish resistance]]'''&quot; in &quot;Palestinian Territories&quot; against &quot;British occupation&quot; 1945-1948 coded as a violent success with no change in Polity IV scores.&lt;ref&gt;There are minor differences between how this is coded in NAVCO 1.1 and the description found in Wikipedia on 2024-03-31. For example, the section on &quot;[[w:Mandatory Palestine#Beginning of Zionist insurgency|Beginning of Zionist insurgency]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Mandatory Palestine|Mandatory Palestine]]&quot; mentions the assassination of &quot;Lord Moyne in Cairo&quot; 1944-11-06, while Chenoweth and Stephan (2011) coded this campaign as starting in 1945, not 1944. This discrepancy might be explained, as Chenoweth and Stephan only included cases where they &quot;were certain that more than 1,000 people were actively participating in the struggle, based on various reports.&quot; Chenoweth and Stephan may not have been able to document &quot;more than 1,000 people&quot; in that struggle prior to 1945. See also Chenoweth (2019b).&lt;/ref&gt; Chenoweth and Stephan (2011, p. 304) reported that only &quot;three successful violent insurgencies were succeeded by democratic regimes: the National Liberation Army’s 1948 victory in Costa Rica, the Jewish resistance in British-occupied Palestine, and the 1971 Bengali self-determination campaign against Pakistan. However, these instances represent only three cases out of fifty-five successful insurgencies in the twentieth century. They are as rare as authoritarian regimes that succeed victorious nonviolent campaigns. This variation points to a potentially fruitful avenue of future research&quot;, such as experiments suggested below in the section on, &quot;Implications for the future&quot;. 
# &quot;'''[[w:Black September|Palestinian activists]]'''&quot; in Jordan violently contesting &quot;Jordanian rule&quot; in 1970 coded as a failure with a modest decline from (-9) to (-10) in Polity IV scores, shifting Jordan to the most authoritarian point on the Polity IV scale.&lt;ref&gt;This doubtless refers to &quot;[[w:Black September|Black September]]&quot;, which Wikipedia reports as having run from 1970-09-06 to 1971-07-23, while NAVCO 1.1 codes both the beginning and end as 1970. This difference seems negligible for present purposes.&lt;/ref&gt; 
# '''The [[w:First Intifada|[First] Intifada]]''' in Palestine against &quot;Israeli occupation&quot; 1987-1990, coded as a partial success from nonviolence but with no change in Polity IV scores.&lt;ref&gt;The end date for the &quot;Intifada&quot; in NAVCO 1.1 is different from the description in Chenoweth and Stephan (2011), whose chapter 5 is titled, &quot;The First Palestinian Intifada, 1987-1992&quot;. The end date in the corresponding Wikipedia article was 1993-09-13 (when checked 2024-03-31), different from both the end dates in NAVCO 1.1 and Chenoweth and Stephan. However, it seems that these differences can be safely ignored for present purposes.&lt;/ref&gt; The work of Chenoweth and Schock (2015) and Chenoweth (2016) suggests that the success might have been greater, if the violence (&quot;radical flank&quot;) that appeared late in the campaign had not occurred. 
# '''The longer violent &quot;Palestinian Liberation&quot; campaign''' (1973- ) against &quot;Israeli occupation&quot; beginning in 1973 and still ongoing in 2006, coded as a failure with no change in Polity IV scores. 

''The nonviolence of the First Intifada did more to move Israeli public opinion to believe that they could live in peace and harmony with Palestinians than anything else Palestinians have done since the [[w:1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948 Arab–Israeli War]]'', at least according to the literature that we've found credible. 

When the First Intifada began, Yitzhak Rabin was Israel's Minister of Defense. He could see that the nonviolence could not be suppressed with massive counter violence for two reasons: 
# Excessive violence against nonviolent demonstrators generated bad press that was actually moving Israeli&lt;ref&gt;Peri (2012) described how Israeli public opinion towards Palestinians softened as Palestinian terrorist attacks receded into history and hardened in response to violence targeting Jews. On p. 23, he said, “In the 1990s -- during the peace process, which made it appear that the era of warfare was at an end and that Israel was becoming a postwar society -- the professional autonomy of the media grew, and journalists adopted a more critical stance. However, the failure of the peace talks in the summer of 2000 and the outbreak of the second Intifada with its suicide attacks aimed at the heart of the civilian population led to a serious retreat ... . State agencies and the public even more so again exerted pressure for media reorientation, demanding that the media restrain its criticism and circle the wagons.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and international opinion.&lt;ref&gt;King (2007).&lt;/ref&gt;
# Rabin knew that ''he could not count on soldiers to follow orders'' if they perceived their orders as out of proportion to the provocations.&lt;ref name=Peri1993&gt;Peri (1993) reported that, &quot;The Palestinian uprising in the Israeli-occupied territories that began in December 1987 poses challenges of an unprecedented nature and difficulty for Israeli society. One of those challenges comes in the form of a conscientious objection to perform military service. ... At the same time, however, some one hundred officers and noncommissioned soldiers have been tried and jailed for refusing to perform military service in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In addition to them, several thousands are in a gray area of refusal. These latter are not put on trial, and therefore no report about them goes to the higher military authorities or the public.&quot; Similarly, Peri (1996, p. 355) said that as the Intifada continued, Rabin &quot;had begun, in conversations with those close to him, to speak of a dimension that he would not dare to expand on publicly: that the war against the Intifada was damaging the [[w:Israeli Defense Forces|IDF]]'s fighting spirit, hurting army morale, and undermining the status of the status of the IDF as a people's army.&quot; Also, the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces|Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces]]&quot; lists several organizations of Israelis refusing to serve in occupied territories, e.g., in Lebanon in the late 1970s and in the West Bank and Gaza in the 1980s and 1990s.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Early in the Intifada, he had told his soldiers to shoot to wound, in the legs and feet. As the nonviolence and negative press continued, he issued clubs and ordered soldiers to beat people, breaking bones.&lt;ref&gt;Munayyer (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; But some 100 Israeli military went to prison rather than follow orders; several thousand others similarly refused but were not prosecuted.&lt;ref name=Peri1993/&gt; The first Israeli military to go to prison after the start of the First Intifada was reportedly [[w:Ofer Cassif|Ofer Cassif]], who later became a vocal supporter of [[w:South Africa's genocide case against Israel|South Africa's genocide case against Israel]] during the [[w:Israel-Hamas war|Israel-Hamas war]], as a member of the Knesset.&lt;ref&gt;Cassif et al. (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Before the Intifada, Rabin had not wanted to talk with Palestinians, saying, &quot;There was no point&quot;, because they always had to check with King Hussein of Jordan or President Mubarak of Egypt or President Assad of Syria.&lt;ref&gt;Peri (1996, p. 353).&lt;/ref&gt; That changed with the Intifada, because the Palestinians &quot;proved that for the first time in their history, they had decided to take charge of their fate.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peri (1996, p. 356).&lt;/ref&gt;

When the nonviolence continued, Rabin ran for Prime Minister on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. He became Prime Minister in 1992 ''and was reportedly pleased when his staff told him he would not have to negotiate with leaders of the nonviolence.''&lt;ref&gt;Shlaim (2014, p. 533): &quot;Rabin’s conversion to the idea of a deal with the PLO was clinched by four evaluations ... .First ... a settlement with Syria was attainable but only at the cost of complete Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights. Second ... the local Palestinian leadership had finally been neutralized. Third ... Arafat’s dire situation, and possible imminent collapse, made him the most convenient interlocutor ... . Fourth ... the impressive progress achieved through the Oslo channel. Other reports that reached Rabin during this period pointed to an alarming growth in the popular following of Hamas and Islamic Jihad in the occupied territories [which] stressed to him the urgency of finding a political solution&quot;. See also King (2007, ch. 12).&lt;/ref&gt; In 1993, Rabin explained that the Palestinians would be better at protecting Israeli interests in the occupied territories than the Israeli military, 

{{quote|because they will allow no appeals to the Supreme Court and will prevent the Israeli Association of Civil Rights from criticizing the conditions there by denying it access to the area. They will rule by their own methods, freeing, and this is most important, the Israeli army soldiers from having to do what they will do.&lt;ref&gt;This quote comes from Usher (1996, p. 28), which says that Rabin said that &quot;in September 1993&quot;, citing as a source &quot;Rabin's statement to the Knesset, 30 August 1993.&quot; This leaves three possibilities: (1) Rabin said that in 30 August 1993, not September 1993. (2) Rabin said that at another time, and Usher cited the wrong document. (3) Rabin did not say what Usher claimed. We assume for the present that (3) is unlikely.&lt;/ref&gt;}} 

Israeli leaders sent in ''[[w:agent provocateur|agents provocateurs]]'', who were exposed and neutralized until Israel expelled 481 leaders of the nonviolence and arrested tens of thousands of others.&lt;ref&gt;The section on [[w:First Intifada#Casualties|Casualties]] of the Wikipedia article on the [[w:First Intifada|First Intifada]] cites at least one reference claiming that 57,000 were arrested; it also cites another claiming that 120,000 were arrested.&lt;/ref&gt; Finally Israel got the Palestinian violence needed to justify overwhelming counter violence. That violence also brought the ultra-Zionist right wing parties back to power in Israel.&lt;ref&gt;Mary Elizabeth King (2007, 2009) and Wikipedia, [[w:First Intifada|First Intifada]], accessed 2023-03-35.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Violence and nonviolence in the American Revolution== 

The &quot;[[w:Age of Revolution|Age of Revolution]]&quot; (1765-1849, including the French Revolution and the Latin American revolutions of the nineteenth century), plus the [[w:Russian Revolution|Russian]],&lt;ref&gt;There were actually two Russian Revolutions in 1917, the &quot;[[w:February Revolution|February]]&quot; and &quot;[[w:October Revolution|October]]&quot; Revolutions. The first was mostly nonviolent, resulting from massive popular displeasure with the management of the Russian political economy by the Tsar during World War I. The second was a violent reactions of the failures of the government that replace the Tsar, leading to the Russian Civil War. This sequence of events is crudely comparable to the First Intifada, in that the potential success of each was cut short by violence, with tragic consequences. We argue that a better popular understanding of nonviolence would likely have produced better results for both with much less loss of life.&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Chinese Communist Revolution|Chinese]],&lt;ref&gt;The Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Chinese Revolution|Chinese Revolution]]&quot; lists several revolutions, all violent, none enhancing democracy. The longest and most consequential was the [[w:Chinese Communist Revolution|Chinese Communist Revolution]] (1927-1949). That's the one that would come first to many people's minds. However, it was not the only one.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:Cuban revolutions|Cuban]] revolutions, as well as the violent post-World War II anti-colonial struggles of Africa and Asia&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[w: Decolonization#After 1945|After 1945]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Decolonization|Decolonization]]&quot;, accessed 2024-03-25.&lt;/ref&gt; all, from at least some perspectives, replaced one brutal repressive system with another. Many, perhaps all, have supporters who claim that common folk benefitted from that violence. For example, Napoleon introduced the [[w:Napoleonic Code|Napoleonic Code]], which has had a major influence on the civil code in many countries around the world, including the US state of Louisiana and most of Latin America and Eurasia.&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:List of national legal systems|List of national legal systems]], accessed 2024-04-01.&lt;/ref&gt; However, claims that any of this violence made substantive advances for freedom and democracy, liberty and justice are at best controversial, especially in the short term. 

The standard narrative of the American Revolution seems to suggest that the American Revolution was different from all those other attempts to emulate it: The US, according to this narrative, got freedom and democracy, liberty and justice for all from the violence of the American Revolution. 

The reality is more nuanced: The US got independence from Great Britain. However, claims that the US got more than that from the violence are controversial and largely contradicted by available evidence. Gaughan (2022) notes that at the time of the Revolution, Great Britain was a constitutional monarchy, which was extremely unusual during a global era of autocracy. &quot;In the British Isles, only 15 to 20 percent of English men could vote. In contrast, ... [t]he rate of enfranchisement varied from colony to colony. ... [A]s many as 80 percent of men could vote in some colonies but only 50 to 60 percent in other colonies. ... During the Revolutionary era, most states expanded suffrage to at least some degree.&quot; However, those expansions of the franchise occurred via ''nonviolent'' democratic deliberation as the existing legislatures of the 13 rebelling colonies either wrote state constitutions or revised their colonial charters to delete reference to Great Britain. 

After the [[w:Boston Tea Party|Boston Tea Party]] in 1773, Parliament ended local self government in Massachusetts. Then crowds of worried farmers prevented many judges appointed by the King from doing anything. A few judges were allowed to continue after promising to ignore the recent acts of Parliament and abide by the colonial charter, under which those judges were answerable to the locals, ''not'' to London.&lt;ref&gt;Raphael (2002).&lt;/ref&gt; If that kind of nonviolent response had been the dominant feature of the American Revolution instead of violence, the experience of Gandhi, King, Badshah Khan, and others described by Chenoweth and Stephan (2011), Chenoweth and Schock (2015), and Chenoweth (2016) suggests that the impact of the American Revolution on world history would likely have been more positive.&lt;ref&gt;See also [[The Great American Paradox]] and Graves (2005).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Other research on nonviolence ==

Previous nonviolent campaigns have often succeeded by inventing new methods of protest as needs and opportunities were identifed. After an approach obtains some level of success, people with power often develop countermeasures that reduce the effectiveness of a known technique going forward.  

Gene Sharp documented 198 nonviolent tactics.&lt;ref&gt;Sharp (1973).&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Nonviolence International|Nonviolence International]] maintains a growing database expanding Sharp's list of 198. By 2021, Nonviolence International had documented 148 more.&lt;ref&gt;Beer (2021, p. 7; 15/116 in pdf).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Role of the media in war == 

It has been said that the first casualty of war is truth.&lt;ref&gt;Knightly (2004) attributes this to US Senator Hiram Johnson in 1917. However, the consensus in multiple articles in Wikiquote seems to attribute it to [[Wikiquote:Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden|Philip Snowden]] in his introduction to Morel (1916, p. vii).&lt;/ref&gt; We suggest, however, that 

:''Truth typically dies long before the first blow is struck in anger.''

In most and perhaps virtually all violent conflicts, each party believes that their actions are justified by atrocities committed by their designated enemies. 

:''Collateral damage that &quot;they&quot; commit proves to us that &quot;they&quot; are subhuman or at best criminally misled and must be resisted by any means necessary. Meanwhile, collateral damage that we commit is unfortunate but necessary -- from our perspective.''

However, to supporters of our opposition, the collateral damage that we have committed proves to them that we are subhuman or at best criminally misled and must be resisted by any means necessary. This asymmetry of perceptions is amplified by the media each party consumes: Every media organization sells changes in audience behaviors to the people who give them money. A media organization with no audience has nothing to sell. If they have an audience but displease their funders, they may not continue to have the money needed to produce the content required to retain an audience.&lt;ref name=ConfBHow2know&gt;Wikiversity, &quot;[[Confirmation bias and conflict]]&quot; and &quot;[[How can we know?]]&quot;, accessed 2024.03.26.&lt;/ref&gt;  

Media organizations everywhere mislead their audiences. They do this easily, because everyone prefers information and sources consistent with preconceptions, a phenomenon called &quot;[[w:confirmation bias|confirmation bias]].&quot; Media organizations everywhere exploit confirmation bias to please those who control most of the money for the media.&lt;ref name = ConfB&gt;Wikiversity, &quot;[[Confirmation bias and conflict]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Wolfsfeld et al. (2002) noted that, &quot;The news media remain important agents for demonizing enemies and transforming political and military leaders into heroes. ... News is fundamentally ethnocentric, especially news about enemies ... because they threaten us.&quot; And violence attracts more attention than nonviolence. &quot;Battles are considered newsworthy, but ideas for preventing battles are not.&quot; Also, peace negotiations are usually conducted in extreme secrecy, because excessive publicity of negotiating positions could reduce the chances of success. Once an agreement is reached, the negotiators representing different parties to the conflict must then sell the agreement to their supporters. Prime Minister Rabin and King Hussein collaborated in supporting each other in selling the [[w:Israel–Jordan peace treaty|1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty]] to their respective peoples. 

A review of relevant literature identified multiple drivers of increases in political polarization in recent decades:&lt;ref&gt;For more on this see Wikiversity, &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-01.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Increased concentration of ownership''' of the media, exemplified by the creation of ''[[w:Israel Hayom|Israel Hayom]]'' by [[w:Sheldon Adelson|Sheldon Adelson]] in Israel and its impact on Israeli politics (discussed below),&lt;ref&gt;Grossman et al. (2022).&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[w:Vincent Bolloré|Bolloré]] in France,&lt;ref&gt;Cagé (2022).&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Rupert Murdoch|Murdoch]] in Australia, the UK and the US,&lt;ref&gt;Murdoch's business focus is exemplified in the settlement Fox accepted in ''[[w:Dominion Voting Systems v. Fox News Network|Dominion v. Fox]]'': Fox admitted that they had initially reported honestly that Biden had won the 2020 US Presidential elections. However, after finding that they were losing audience to election deniers, they switched to reporting false claims about Dominion. Fox agreed to pay Dominion $787.5 million, ''provided they did not have to apologize for having lied to their audience.'' If lying about the 2020 election increased their audience and revenue by 6% in 2021, they made money, even after paying $787.5 million to Dominion. Fraud can be good business. Media executives could be fired if they lose money trying to protect democracy.&lt;/ref&gt; and Sinclair in the US.&lt;ref&gt;Ellison (2024), Kaviani et al. (2022), Miho (2020). This trend has been extended historically to include exclusive access offered by [[w:Western Union|Western Union]], founded in 1851, to the [[w:Associated Press|Associated Press]] (AP) as long as AP reporters did not criticize major corporations and monopolies and the contribution of those biases to the rise of the [[w:Robber baron|Robber baron]]s in the US in the late nineteenth century, according to McChesney (2004, pp. 35-36): &quot;[E]conomic historians regard the growth of Western Union as a major factor in the dominance of big business in American life. ... Western Union used its monopoly power to collaborate in the development of the [[w:Associated Press| Associated Press]] [AP, founded 1846], a monopoly news service run in cooperative fashion with the largest newspaper publishers. ... With exclusive access to the wires -- Western Union refused to let potential competitors use its wires -- AP became the only wire news service in the nation. ... Needless to say, [AP] invariably presented a voice that took the side of business interests.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Increased concentration of ownership of the media in apparently free societies make them look more like the unfree press in authoritarian regimes like Saudi Arabia, where journalists are more often incarcerated and killed.&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi|On 2018-10-02 Saudi government agents killed Jamal Khashoggi]], a Saudi journalist working for the Washington Post, because they did not like his reporting. Similarly, Khouri (2024) reported that, &quot;For the past six months, Israel has put a lot of effort into covering up its genocidal crimes in Gaza. One of the most brutal ways it does this is by routinely threatening, targeting and assassinating Palestinian journalists. The US-based Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) has reported that at least 90 Palestinian journalists have been killed since October 7 alongside two Israelis and three Lebanese. This is the highest death toll of journalists in any modern conflict that CPJ has monitored.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; 
* '''The abolition of the [[w:Fairness doctrine|Fairness doctrine]]''' by the US [[w:Federal Communications Commission|Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) in 1987 and the subsequent adaptation of the major media in the US to the belief systems of their increasingly distinct audiences. ([[w:Market segmentation|Segmentation]], a standard business practice, produces political polarization threatening democracy when applied to media markets, especially when control is too concentrated.) 
* '''The rise of the &quot;click economy&quot;''', with Internet companies, especially social media like Facebook, making money from clicks. Their algorithms exploit confirmation bias in ways that increase political polarization. They herd people into echo chambers in which people become increasingly convinced of the rectitude of their own positions and increasingly ignorant of and insensitive -- and often hostile -- to the constructed realties of people with whom they disagree.&lt;ref&gt;Carter (2021) and Wikiversity, &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-01.&lt;/ref&gt; 
* '''The decline in the quantity and diversity of local news''', including the growth of news deserts and ghost newspapers.&lt;ref&gt;Abernathy (2020).&lt;/ref&gt; The decline in trusted local source(s) makes it easier for people to be misled by increasingly homogenized and biased corporate media and click bait.&lt;ref&gt;Darr et al. (2018, 2021), Zuboff (2018), Frenkel and Kang (2021), Vaidhyanathan (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; This has become so pervasive that it threatens the national security of the US and its allies according to retired Lt. General [[w:H. R. McMaster|McMaster]],&lt;ref&gt;McMaster (2020).&lt;/ref&gt; former President Trump's second National Security Advisor.&lt;ref&gt;For a discussion of changes like these in Germany, see Flößer (2024). He discussed the [[w:Alternative for Germany|Alternative for Germany]] (Alternatif für Deutschland, AfD), a right-wing populist, political party in Germany, that insists that [[w:German collective guilt|Germany should not feel shame or guilt]] from what it did when Hitler was their leader. Flößer said the AfD generally got more votes ''in places with no local newspaper.''&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;For more on the decline of local news, its impact, and what to do about it, see the section on [[International Conflict Observatory#The current legal environment for Internet and other media companies amplifies political polarization and conflict|The current legal environment for Internet and other media companies amplifies political polarization and conflict]] in the Wikiversity article on [[International Conflict Observatory]].&lt;/ref&gt; 

The abolition of the US Fairness Doctrine clearly had no legal implications outside the US. However, Grossman et al. (2022) documented an apparently similar &quot;sea change in the right’s dominance of national politics&quot; in Israel that primarily benefited Benjamin Netanyahu and his Likud party following the 2007 launch of ''[[w:Israel Hayom|Israel Hayom]]'' by billionaire casino magnate [[w:Sheldon Adelson|Sheldon Adelson]]. It was distributed for free, reportedly to skirt Israel's campaign finance laws. &quot;[I]t soon became the most widely read newspaper nationally.&quot; Their &quot;findings highlight the immense impact the ultrarich can exert in shaping politics through media ownership.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;See also  Lalwani (2022). Similar concerns about the impact on French politics of the media empire of billionaire Vincent Bollaré are expressed in Cagé (2022).&lt;/ref&gt; This shift was described by US Senator [[w:Bernie Sanders|Bernie Sanders]], himself Jewish, saying in March 2024, &quot;the Israel of today is not the Israel of … 20 to 30 years ago ... . It is a right-wing country, increasingly becoming a religious fundamentalist country where you have some of these guys in office believe that God told them they have a right to control the entire area.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hawkinson (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; Sander's comment is supported by Adelson's support for the claim that, &quot;the Palestinians are an invented people out to destroy Israel&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;Stoil (2014). Evidence from many sources suggests that the vast majority of Palestinians are ''not'' out to destroy Israel. Past Palestinian violence can be plausibly attributed to mistreatment they have experienced, unreported or underreported in the media consumed by most supporters of Israel.&lt;/ref&gt; a claim similar to the Zionist trope that Palestine was &quot;[[w:A land without a people for a people without a land|a land without a people for a people without a land]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;The extent to which this phrase helped drive the Zionist movement of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries is controversial. See the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:A land without a people for a people without a land|a land without a people for a people without a land]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-03.&lt;/ref&gt; 

''Israel Hayom'' is often called &quot;Bibiton&quot;, which is a portmanteau of &quot;Bibi&quot;, a nickname for Benjamin Netanyahu, and &quot;iton&quot;, the Hebrew word for newspaper. Adelson was accused&lt;ref&gt;Fulbright and Surkes (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; but not charged in the on-going corruption trial against Netanyahu&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:Trial of Benjamin Netanyahu|Trial of Benjamin Netanyahu]]&quot;. Netanyahu and his supporters have been working to undermine the judiciary to protect themselves from the issues raised in this trial, as documented in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:2023 Israeli judicial reform|2023 Israeli judicial reform]]&quot;, accessed 2024-03-27. However, the issues raised in this legal battle are not as obviously related to questions of the role of the media in conflict, the topic of the present discussion.&lt;/ref&gt; and died before he was scheduled to testify in that trial.&lt;ref&gt;Alterman (2021).&lt;/ref&gt;

A 2022 survey in Israel found that ''Israel Hayom'' had the largest weekday readership exposure of any newspapers in Israel at 31%. The second and third most popular newspapers were ''[[w:Yedioth Ahronoth|Yedioth Ahronoth]]'' with 23.9% and ''[[w:Haaretz|Haaretz]]'' with 4.7% readership exposure.&lt;ref&gt;Readership figures are from a Hebrew-language document cited in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Newspapers in Israel|Newspapers in Israel]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-03.&lt;/ref&gt; ''Yedioth Ahronoth'' tends to support former Israeli minister [[w:Tzipi Livni|Tzipi Livni]], who has been a leading Israeli politician advocating restraining expansion of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and negotiating with Palestinians; anything like this has been vigorously opposed by the editorial policies of ''Israel Hayom''. However, her support for Palestinians had limits, as indicated by a warrant for her arrest that was reportedly issued by a British court under universal jurisdiction, following an application by lawyers acting for Palestinian victims of the [[w:Gaza War (2008–2009)|2008-2009 Gaza war]]&lt;ref&gt;Also called &quot;Operation Cast Lead&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; for her role in that operation as Israeli Foreign Minister. (The warrant was reportedly dropped with apologies from British political leaders after her visit to the UK was canceled.)&lt;ref&gt;Black and Cobain (2009).&lt;/ref&gt;

Political polarization doubtless exists between and within different groups supporting Palestinians and Israel driven by differences in the media they consume. Those differences in perception help perpetuate the conflict to the detriment of all.

More generally, 

* ''we are all prisoners of the media we find credible, except for leaders (especially elected officials), who are prisoners of the media their followers find credible.''

== Implications for the future == 

What might be done to break the cycle of violence that has plagued Palestine and Israel since the 1917 Balfour declaration? 

Several ideas come to mind: 

=== Equal protection of the laws === 

* ''Everyone believes in rule of law, except people with power, who believe that they should be above the law.''&lt;ref&gt;[[q:Anacharsis|Anacharsis]] in ancient Athens said that laws are like spiders' webs: Strong enough to hold little flies but not big ones. [[w:Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]]'s [[w:The Prince|''Prince'']] claimed it had to be that way, because the alternative was worse. The present discussion contradicts Machiavelli's claims, recommending strengthening rule of law.&lt;/ref&gt;  

Can enough Palestinians publicly and effectively renounce violence that it actually moves Israeli and international public opinion enough to force Israel to provide something like equal protection of the laws? Israel was moved in that direction by the nonviolence of the First Intifada. It could happen again. 

It would be great if Palestinians and / or Israelis and their supporters took the lead, but others do not have to wait for that. 

Rep. [[w:Marjorie Taylor Greene|Marjorie Taylor Greene]] (R-GA) has introduced several motions in the US House of Representatives to try to censure Rep. [[w:Ilhan Omar|Ilhan Omar]] (D-MN) for having said, &quot;From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free.&quot; Greene claimed that phrase was a Hamas slogan and &quot;calls for genocide of all Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bahney (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; This has created problems for several Jewish members of the Congressional Progressive Caucus, who oppose Omar's use of that phrase but support her against censure on free speech grounds.&lt;ref&gt;Grayer (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; If Omar and others could ask instead for &quot;equal protect of the laws&quot;, it would be harder for people (like Greene) to oppose and easier for Jews and others to support.&lt;ref&gt;For more background on the use and interpretation of that and similar phrases by different groups, see the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:From the river to the sea|From the river to the sea]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-09.&lt;/ref&gt;

Less well known is the portion of [[w:From the river to the sea|the 1977 election manifesto of the right-wing Israeli Likud party]] that, &quot;Between the sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Likud Party (1977).&lt;/ref&gt; Whether or not Ilhan Omar was intending to call for genocide of Jews, the current Israeli government, whose Prime Minister leads [[w:Likud|Likud]], has been [[w:South Africa's genocide case against Israel|accused of ''actual'' genocide]] in a complaint to the [[w:International Court of Justice|International Court of Justice]].&lt;ref&gt;[[w:South Africa v. Israel (Genocide Convention)|''South Africa v. Israel'' (2023)]].&lt;/ref&gt; The alleged denials of equal protection of the laws to Palestinians might be attributed in part to the editorial policies of the leading newspaper in Israel, ''Israel Hayom'', funded by Adelson and delivered for free to anyone who wants it. 

Perhaps it's better to avoid phrases like that entirely and instead demand something like &quot;equal protection of the laws.&quot; That principle was promised by the [[w:Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution]], passed in 1868 and is still far from being implemented.&lt;ref&gt;The phrase &quot;equal protection of the laws&quot; are the last 5 words of [[w:Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Section 1: Citizenship and civil rights|Section 1 of that amendment]]. That amendment has reportedly been the most frequently litigated part of the Constitution, and Section 1 has reportedly been the most frequently litigated part of the amendment. Just such a case active as this is being written in ''Johnson v. Parson'' (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Let's broaden this question: What percent of the enemies of any country are primarily a result of routine denial of equal protection of the laws by people with power? The documentation summarized here suggests that the Palestinian violence since the Oslo Accords has largely been due to mistreatment, extended incarcerations without charges or trial, destruction of property, taking property at gun point, and even murder by Israeli security forces and settlers, unreported or underreported in the major media consumed by supporters of Israel, as noted by [[w:Ofer Cassif|Ofer Cassif]], a Jewish member of the Knesset. He said that Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu released [[w:Yahya Sinwar|Yahya Sinwar]], the violent leader of Hamas, in a prisoner exchange in 2011, and did ''not'' release [[w:Marwan Barghouti|Marwan Barghouti]], who has been called a Palestinian Mandela. Is ''nonviolence'' a bigger threat than violence to the 1977 Likud promise, &quot;Between the sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty&quot;?&lt;ref&gt;Cassif et al. (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Similarly, there is substantial documentation of routine denial of equal protection to foreigners by the US&lt;ref name=US&gt;The Wikiversity article on &quot;[[1998 Embassy bombings and September 11]]&quot;, accessed 2024-10-21, cites documentation supporting two claims: (1) The 1998 embassy bombing was retaliation for US complicity in torture. (2) The suicide mass murders of September 11, 2001, might not have occurred if the US had treated the 1998 embassy bombings as a law enforcement issue.&lt;/ref&gt; and France,&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., the Wikipedia articles on [[w:Françafrique|Françafrique]] and [[w:François-Xavier Verschave|François-Xavier Verschave]] (accessed 2024-04-22), whose books titled &quot;''Françafrique'' (1999) and ''Noir silence'' (2020) have become standard works for anyone interested in the Rwandan genocide specifically, and generally the dissimulated policies followed by the French Republic in former colonies.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; to name only two countries for which substantial documentation is available.

=== Limit state secrets privilege === 

Equal protection of the laws cannot be guaranteed without limiting the ability of governments to ''deny'' equal protection in secret. In the US, this would require modifying the law governing &quot;[[w:State secrets privilege|state secrets privilege]]&quot;. 

Under past and current US secrecy practices, US government officials have provoked foreign entities to do things that were then denounced as unprovoked to justify counterproductive uses of military force. Current US government secrecy practices encourage such dangerous behaviors, according to documentation in Connelly (2023).&lt;ref&gt;See also the summary in Connelly, Samuelson, and Graves (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; The US responses to the 1998 embassy bombings and the September 11 attacks are examples.&lt;ref name=US/&gt; The 1997 report of the [[w:Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy|Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] reached conclusions similar to those of Connelly. Lying to Congress may officially be illegal, but exposing such lies has been punished severely while people who deceived Congress were rewarded, as documented with the revelations of [[w:Edward Snowden|Edward Snowden]]. Worse, [[w:Richard Barlow (intelligence analyst)|Richard Barlow]]'s career was reportedly destroyed merely for telling his managers they should not lie to Congress.  He did ''not'' expose officially classified government secrets but only filed suit for wrongful termination. 

[[w:Daniel Hale|Daniel Hale]] was sentenced to 45 months in prison for leaking a document that showed that during a five-month operation in Afghanistan, &quot;nearly 90% of the people killed during one five-month period ... were not the intended targets.&quot; Rep. Ilhan Omar asked President Biden to pardon Hale, because ''none of the documents released actually threatened US national security but instead &quot;shone a vital light on the legal and moral problems of the drone program and informed the public debate on an issue that has for too many years remained in the shadows.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;Johnson (2021).&lt;/ref&gt; Similar things can be said about other whistleblowers and [[w:Julian Assange|Julian Assange]].&lt;ref&gt;See also Graves (2014, 2021).&lt;/ref&gt; 

The need for that much secrecy is further challenged by the research by Tetlock and Gardner (2015), who reported that their &quot;superforecasting&quot; teams &quot;''performed about 30 percent better'' than the average for intelligence community analysts who could read intercepts and other secret data&quot; in forecasting problems assigned by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).&lt;ref&gt;Tetlock and Gardner (2015, p. 95).&lt;/ref&gt; If important intelligence questions can be answered -- and answered ''better'' -- without government secrecy, that reinforces the conclusions of Connelly (2023) and others, that 

:* ''excessive government secrecy threatens more than advances US national security.''&lt;ref&gt;Connelly (2023); see also the summary in Connelly, Samuelson and Graves (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 

We need government secrecy for some things, e.g., design and production technologies for sophisticated weapon systems and military plans for future operations.&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2014).&lt;/ref&gt; However, as the Moynihan Commission and Connelly reported, that's a tiny fraction of the information currently held as government secrets. Both claimed that the US would be safer and more prosperous if it limited government secrets to the things where government secrecy is really important. 

Might similar considerations apply to Israel and Palestine?

=== Support training in nonviolence === 

As noted above, the nonviolence of the First Intifada led to the election of Yitzhak Rabin as Prime Minister of Israel on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. This, in turn, led to the Oslo Accords and the current State of Palestine. As the time since the [[w:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|Hamas attacks on Israel of 2023-10-07]] has increased, more people in Israel,&lt;ref&gt;Wilkinson and Yam (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; the US and internationally have become increasingly concerned that the ferocity of Israeli attacks on Gaza (and the West Bank) seems far beyond the national security needs of Israel and out of proportion to the provocation.&lt;ref&gt;Mackenzie and Al-Mughrabi (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, people are concerned that Israeli military attacks in Lebanon&lt;ref&gt;The Wikipedia article on [[w:2024 in Lebanon|2024 in Lebanon]] listed 8 attacks by Israel that killed at least 15 people in the first three months of 2024, when checked 2024-04-02.&lt;/ref&gt; and Syria&lt;ref&gt;Israel conducted lethal air strikes against alleged Iranian targets in Syria -- Aleppo March 29 and Damascus April 1, per Reuters (2024) and Bowen (2024); see also [[w:2024 Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus|2024 Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus]], accessed 2024-04-03.&lt;/ref&gt; threaten unnecessary expansion of the war.&lt;ref&gt;Peri (2020) claimed that Netanyahu's government had shifted more to the right in recent years, increasing the gap between military and political leaders. It could be helpful to have an update on how this split has impacted the current Israel-Hamas war and vice versa.&lt;/ref&gt; A new nonviolent movement led by Palestinians could strengthen people in Israel and elsewhere who are opposed to the current war.  

Palestinians and others could ask the US and Israel to support training in nonviolent civil disobedience for anyone interested, including designated &quot;terrorists&quot;. A demand like this should be difficult for people to oppose and could make it easier for people in many places to effectively work toward equal protection of the laws and for redress of other grievances. 

However, it is currently a criminal violation of the USA [[w:Patriot Act|Patriot Act]] to provide such training to anyone designated as a &quot;terrorist&quot; by the US State Department, per the Supreme Court decision in ''[[w:Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project|Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project]]'' (2010). That law should be changed to ''support'' rather than ''criminalize'' such training.

How might the world be different if the US had vigorously supported rather than criminalized training Hamas and other designated &quot;terrorists&quot; in nonviolence? In particular, what are the chances that the [[w:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|Hamas-led attack on Israel of 2023-10-07]] would have happened if Palestinians could have seen progress in response to nonviolent protests against many of the outrages documented by the [[w:Palestinian Centre for Human Rights|Palestinian Centre for Human Rights]] and others? Currently few supporters of Israel seem to have any substantive awareness of the many outrages against Palestinians committed by people they support, because the media they find credible rarely if ever provides a balanced account of such outrages. If the US government had more openly supported such training, nonviolent protests facilitated by that training would likely have gotten better coverage in Israeli and international news. That in turn would likely have made it harder for the Israeli government to continue depriving Palestinians of equal protection of the laws so egregiously. It may also have made Palestinian government entities more responsive to the concerns of their people, which also could have reduced the risks of events like those of 2023-10-07.

=== Citizen-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits === 

The Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot; suggests randomized controlled trials to evaluate the long-term impact of citizen-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits distributed via local elections, as recommended by McChesney and Nichols (2021, 2022). They suggest distributing 0.15% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to local news non-profits via local elections with a limit on the maximum that any one local news organization could receive. Evidence summarized in that Wikiversity article suggests that the increases in political polarization in many countries in recent years may be due in part to a loss of local news, as advertising money has increasingly shifted to Internet companies that hire few if any journalists. 

To apply this to Israel and Palestine, we first note that their nominal GDPs in 2021 were $482 and $18 billion US$, respectively, totaling $500 billion.&lt;ref&gt;UN (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 0.15% of those numbers is $723 and $27 million, totaling $750 million. That may sound like a lot of money, but it's only 3.2% of the 2022 military budget of Israel of $23.4 billion.&lt;ref&gt;SIPRI (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; It's also roughly three times what Israel was spending ''each day'' in the first month of the Israel-Hamas war,&lt;ref&gt;Masters and Merrow (2024).&lt;/ref&gt;, 21% of the $3.6 billion that the US gave Israel in 2021, and 3% of the $26 billion that the US reportedly authorized for Israel 2024-04-24.&lt;ref&gt;Madhani and Kim (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

If media subsidies like these make a substantive contribution to reducing the political polarization that has driven this conflict at least since the creation of Israel in 1948, it should help build broadly shared peace and prosperity for the long term for Israelis and Palestinians. If it also reduced the calls for Israel to use nuclear weapons in Gaza&lt;ref&gt;Khalid (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; or eased relations between Israel and Iran,&lt;ref&gt;Belkaïd (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; it would be money well spent. 

If any of these things happen, it would likely be the best investment in national security that Israel has made ever. This conjecture rests on the claims made above about news deserts, the &quot;click economy&quot;, and ''Israel Hayom''. If this works as predicted, it would also provide a shining example of new social technology that could help diffuse many other seemingly intractable conflicts around the globe.

=== Conclusions === 

We are not advocating an answer but a methodology that leading organizations have used successfully to build effective marketing campaigns worth billions of dollars: (i) Start by enunciating an objective like building broadly shared peace and prosperity while ending a cycle of violence. (ii) Brainstorm alternative approaches. (iii) Evaluate and refine them in focus groups. (iv) Test market the ones that seem most promising, and (v) go with what seems to work, (vi) while continuing to monitor results and adjusting accordingly. 

You, dear reader, may have other ideas that might be more effective than any of the things discussed herein to break the cycle of violence and build broadly shared peace and prosperity for the long term.

== Bibliography ==

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* &lt;!-- Darr, Hitt, and Dunaway (2021)  Home Style Opinion: How Local Newspapers Can Slow Polarization--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125287538}} 
* &lt;!-- Sarah Ellison (2024-02-16) &quot;Sinclair's recipe for TV news: Crime, homelessness, illegal drugs&quot;, Washington Post--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125271605}}
* &lt;!--Maxim Floßer (2024-03-06) &quot;Keine Lokalzeitung -- mehr AfD&quot;, Kontext--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125287792}}
* &lt;!--Sheera Frenkel; Cecilia Kang (July 2021). An Ugly Truth: Inside Facebook's Battle for Domination (Harper)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q107560533}}
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* &lt;!-- Anthony J. Gaughan (2022-12-30) Voting in Colonial and Revolutionary America--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125260096}}
* &lt;!-- Graves (2005) Violence, Nonviolence, and the American Revolution--&gt;{{cite Q|Q58635938}} 
* &lt;!-- Graves (2014) Restrict secrecy more than data collection--&gt;{{cite Q|Q106512569}}
* &lt;!-- Graves (2021) Congressional Gold Medals for Assange, Hale, Barlow, Winner, Manning, Edmonds, Sterling, Drake, Snowden, Ellsberg--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125570226}}
* &lt;!-- Annie Grayer (2024-03-29) &quot;Progressive Jewish lawmakers caught in the middle of bitter Democratic divide over Israel&quot;, CNN--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125247599}}
* &lt;!-- Guy Grossman, Yotam Margalit, and Tamar Mitts (2022-10) &quot;How the Ultrarich Use Media Ownership as a Political Investment&quot;, The Journal of Politics, 84(4)1913-1931--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125248630}} 
* &lt;!-- Katie Hawkinson (2024-03-27) &quot;Bernie Sanders says Israel is ‘becoming a religious fundamentalist country’&quot;, Independent--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125250312}}
* &lt;!-- Hulse (2015) Florida Ex-Senator Pursues Claims of Saudi Ties to Sept. 11 Attacks--&gt;{{cite Q|Q65002265}}
* &lt;!-- Johnson v. Parson (2024) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q125559456}}
* &lt;!-- Jake Johnson (2021) &quot;Ilhan Omar to Joe Biden: Pardon Drone Whistleblower Daniel Hale&quot;, Common Dreams--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125571612}}
* &lt;!-- Kahneman and Klein (2009) Conditions for intuitive expertise: a failure to disagree--&gt;{{cite Q|Q35001791}}
* &lt;!-- Mahsa Kaviani, Lily Yuanzhi Li, and Hosein Maleki (2022) Media, Partisan Ideology, and Corporate Social Responsibility--&gt;{{cite Q|Q121493540}}
* &lt;!-- Tuqa Khalid (2023-11-19) &quot;Deputy Knesset speaker calls for ‘burning down Gaza’ as Israel is ‘too humane’&quot;, Al Arabiya--&gt;{{cite Q| Q125877184}}
* &lt;!-- Rami G Khouri (2024-04-02) &quot;Watching the watchdogs: Israel’s attacks on journalists are backfiring&quot;, Al Jazeera English--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125274545}} 
* &lt;!-- Mary Elizabeth King (2007) A quiet revolution: the first Palestinian Intifada and nonviolent resistance (Bold Type Books)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q123299945}}
* &lt;!-- Mary E. King (2009) &quot;Palestinian civil resistance against Israeli military occupation&quot;, ch. 10, pp. 131-155, in Maria Stephan, ed. (2009) Civilian Jihad: Nonviolent struggle, democratization, and governance in the Middle East (Macmillan)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q108909718}}
*&lt;!-- Phillip Knightley (2004) The First Casualty, 5th ed. (Johns Hopkins U. Pr.)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q118227485}}
* &lt;!--Nikita Lalwani (2022-12-06) &quot;Rich people who own newspapers can shift elections. Israel shows how.&quot;, Washington Post--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125303071}}
* &lt;!-- Tovah Lazaroff (2022-01-19/20) &quot;World silent on Palestinian ‘terror attacks with rocks,’ Erdan tells UNSC&quot;, Jerusalem Post--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125250960}}
* &lt;!-- Likud Party (1977) Original Party Platform--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125558709}}
* &lt;!-- James Mackenzie and Nidal Al-Mughrabi (2024-04-05) Six months into Gaza war, Israel faces deepening isolation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125352433}}
* &lt;!--Aamer Madhani and Seung Min Kim (2024-04-24) &quot;Biden says the US is rushing weaponry to Ukraine as he signs a $95 billion war aid measure into law&quot;, AP--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125640305}}
* &lt;!--  Jonathan Masters and Will Merrow (2024-04-11) U.S. Aid to Israel in Four Charts--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125638814}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney (2004) The problem of the media (Monthly Review Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7758439}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2021). &quot;The Local Journalism Initiative: a proposal to protect and extend democracy&quot;. Columbia Journalism Review, 30 November 2021 --&gt;{{cite Q|Q109978060}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2022), To Protect and Extend Democracy, Recreate Local News Media (PDF), FreePress.net (updated 25 January 2022) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q109978337}}
* &lt;!-- H. R. McMaster (2020). Battlegrounds: The Fight to Defend the Free World (HarperCollins)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104774898}}
* &lt;!-- Antonela Miho (2020) Small Screen, Big Echo? Estimating the Political Persuasion of Local Television News Bias using Sinclair Broadcast Group as a Natural Experiment--&gt;{{cite Q|Q120895467}}
* &lt;!-- E. D. Morel (1916-07) Truth and the War (National Labor Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125251272}}
* &lt;!-- Yousef Munayyer (2011) &quot;Palestine’s Hidden History of Nonviolence&quot;, Foreign Policy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125419587}}
* &lt;!-- Yoram Peri (1993), Israel: Conscientious Objection in a Democracy under Siege, pp. 146–157, ch. 12 in Charles Moskos; John Whiteclay Chambers II, eds. (1993). The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance (Oxford U. Pr.)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125141486|chapter=unset|volume = Moscos and Chambers (eds.) The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance}}
* &lt;!-- Yoram Peri (1996) Afterword in&quot; The Rabin Memoirs, Expanded Edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125500087|author=Yoram Peri|title=''&quot;Afterword&quot; in'' The Rabin Memoirs}}
* &lt;!-- Yoram Peri (2012) &quot;The impact of national security on the development of media systems: The case of Israel&quot;, ch. 2 in Comparing media systems beyond the Western world--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125350983|chapter=unset|volume = Hallin and Mancini (eds.) Comparing media systems beyond the Western world}}
* &lt;!--Yoram Peri (2020) &quot;The Widening Military–political Gap in Israel&quot;, SWP Comment--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125364273}}
* &lt;!--Jeremy Pressman (2017) &quot;Throwing stones in social science: Non-violence, unarmed violence, and the first intifada&quot;, Cooperation and Conflict--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125419819}}
* &lt;!-- Ray Raphael (2002) The First American Revolution (he New Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q59420225}}
* &lt;!-- Reuters (2023-10-25) Israel to amend budget, Gaza war direct cost at $246 mln daily--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124336510|author=Reuters}}
* &lt;!-- Reuters (2024-03-29) &quot;Israel hits Syria in heaviest raid on Iran proxies in months--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125308182|author=Reuters}}
* &lt;!--  Nic Robertson and Kelly Wallace (2001) U.S. rejects Taliban offer to try bin Laden--&gt;{{cite Q|Q114923316}}
* &lt;!-- Jeremy Sharon (2024-03-20). &quot;Livni testifies at Netanyahu corruption trial she was surprised by PM's sudden change of view on newspaper law&quot;, The Times of Israel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125145096}} 
* &lt;!--Gene Sharp (1973) The Politics of Nonviolent Action (3 vols., Porter Sargent)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7757693}}
* &lt;!--Avi Shlaim (2014) The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World, 2nd ed. (Penguin)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124213243}}
* &lt;!--SIPRI Military Expenditure Database--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125356573|date=2024-04-05|author=SIPRI}} 
* &lt;!-- South Africa v. Israel (2023)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124208778}}
* &lt;!-- Rebecca Shimoni Stoil (2014) Adelson: Palestinians an invented people out to destroy Israel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125616092}}
* &lt;!--Mira Sucharov (2022-10-26) “Do American Jews Really Know What 'Zionist' Means?”, Haaretz--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125903777}}
* &lt;!-- Phil Tetlock and Gardner (2015) Superforecasting: The Art and Science of Prediction--&gt;{{cite Q|Q21203378}}
* &lt;!--UN Basic Data Selection--&gt;{{cite Q|Q120485981|date=2023-07-06|title=2021 GDP (nominal)|author=UN Basic Data Selection}}
* &lt;!-- Graham Usher (1996) &quot;The Politics of Internal Security: The PA's New Intelligence Services&quot;, Journal of Palestine Studies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127171442}}
* &lt;!-- Siva Vaidhyanathan (12 June 2018). Antisocial Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56027099}}
* &lt;!-- Tracy Wilkinson and Marcus Yam (2024-04-03) News Analysis: Netanyahu faces massive protests in Israel. Could the war in Gaza be his undoing?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125352382}}
* &lt;!-- Ian Williams (2022-03) &quot;Hasbara and a Stone: Israel’s Ambassador Brings Both to the U.N.&quot;, Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125251295}}
* &lt;!--Gadi Wolfsfeld, Rami Khouri, Yoram Peri (2002) &quot;News About the Other in Jordan and Israel: Does Peace Make a Diﬀerence?&quot;, Political Communication, 19:189–210,--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125474891}}
* &lt;!-- Shoshana Zuboff (2018) The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power--&gt;{{cite Q|Q75804726}}

== Notes ==
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[[Category:Government]]
[[Category:News]] 
[[Category:Original research]]
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[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
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[[Category:Corruption]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:war]]
[[Category:violence]]
[[Category:terrorism]]
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[[Category:State of Palestine]]</text>
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      <comment>/* The nonviolence of the First Intifada */ refine citation for Rabin statement about Palestinians being better at their &quot;security&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="67261" sha1="mw03skqn1rphm7rsgwa68v9kunl71zt" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 

:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- and raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|''''“Discuss”'''' page]].''  

::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' 

== Abstract == 

This article evaluates how the world might be different if the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1964, had sought a redress of grievances through nonviolence rather than violence. This analysis rests on a summary of research comparing the relative effectiveness of violence and nonviolence and the role of the media in conflict. It concludes with four suggestions for ending the cycle of violence and building a better future for all: (1) Demand equal protection of the laws. (2) Limit &quot;state secrets privilege&quot; to make it harder for governments to deny equal protection and lie about it with impunity. (3) Support training in nonviolence for all. (4) Citizen-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits to make it harder for major media to encourage their audiences to support counterproductive actions.

== Introduction == 

How might the world be different if the [[w:Palestine Liberation Organization|Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), founded in 1964, had been committed to nonviolence, following [[w:Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]], [[w:Martin Luther King Jr.|King]], and [[w:Abdul Ghaffar Khan|Badshah Khan]] rather than [[w:George Washington|George Washington]] and [[w:Fidel Castro|Fidel Castro]]?

Nothing can be said about this for certain, except that the world would be different. However, careful study of history suggests that the world would most likely be better for virtually all Jews and Palestinians.&lt;ref&gt;This might be regarded as '[[w:counterfactual history| counterfactual history]]&quot;, which, especially in analyses like the present, invites people to consider the implications of alternative approaches to problems in light of research on human behavior and political economy.&lt;/ref&gt; 

This should ''NOT'' be construed as a criticism of [[w:Yassir Arafat|Yassir Arafat]] nor of anyone who supported the PLO nor any other organization that has adopted violent tactics such as [[w:Hamas|Hamas]] since 2023-10-07: They were following the example of [[w:George Washington|George Washington]]. How could they go wrong? 

Our answer to this apparent contradiction, discussed briefly below, is that few of the violent revolutions since 1776 have had the success attributed to the American Revolution, because the subsequent success of the US was achieved ''in spite of'', rather than because of, the violence of the American Revolution. The traditional narrative of the American Revolution has been written to please people who control most of the money for the media -- to the detriment of everyone else. Over 50 percent of adult white males could vote before the revolution, and the violence of the revolution did not change that, as discussed below.&lt;ref&gt;Per quotes from Gaughan (2022) in [[#Violence and nonviolence in the American Revolution|§ Violence and nonviolence in the American Revolution]].&lt;/ref&gt; 

Similarly, the nonviolence of the [[w:First Intifada|First Intifada]] led to the election of [[w:Yitzhak Rabin|Yitzhak Rabin]] as Prime Minister of Israel on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. That led to the [[w:Oslo Accords|Oslo Accords]] and the current [[w:State of Palestine|State of Palestine]]. We claim that if the Palestinians had maintained nonviolent discipline, the two-state solution promised at Oslo would likely have worked to benefit all.

Few supporters of Israel have any substantive understanding of the extent of the mistreatment of Palestinians by Israeli military and settlers, because the media they find credible rarely if ever provide balanced coverage of it. 

However, the nonviolence of the First Intifada convinced enough Israeli voters that they could live in peace with Palestinians that Yitzhak Rabin won an election in 1992 to become Prime Minister of Israel on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. Most nonviolent campaigns have produced similar results, as discussed below. 

Tragically, subsequent violence by both sides has created obstacles to honest consideration by each of how their opposition perceives them. Palestinians during the First Intifada and since have seen throwing rocks as relatively nonviolent. That is ''not'' how most supporters of Israel have perceived that. In 2022 the Israeli ambassador to United Nations [[w:Gilad Erdan|Gilad Erdan]] complained that the world has been silent in the face of Palestinian “terror attacks with rocks” against Israelis, as he held up a rock the size of a brick. He noted that a rock like that could kill someone in a car speeding along a highway.&lt;ref&gt;Erdan's complaint was reported seriously by Lazeroff (2022) in the ''Jerusalem Post'', but was ridiculed by Willliams (2022) in the ''Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs''. Pressman (2017) said that throwing rocks should be considered &quot;unarmed violence&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; 

This suggests that the nonviolence of the First Intifada, discussed below, might have been more effective if Palestinians had not thrown rocks: The shift in Israeli public opinion that got Yitzhak Rabin elected as Prime Minister would likely have been greater, and the international pressure on Israel would also likely have been greater. 

A vigorous commitment to nonviolence has worked in the past, even within the conflict between Jews and Palestinians. It seems to offer the only realistic prospect for breaking the cycle of violence and building a better future for both Palestinians and Jews.  

{{Blockquote|text=
''Oh, would some Power the gift give us''

''To see ourselves as others see us!''

''It would from many a blunder free us''
|multiline=yes
|author = [[w:Robert Burns|Robert Burns (1786)]]
|title = [[w:To a Louse|''To a Louse'']]}}

== Experts == 

There is a substantial body of research dating back at least to the 1950s that most experts can be beaten by simple rules of thumb developed by intelligent lay people. Kahneman and Klein (2009) found that, 

* ''Expert intuition is learned from frequent, rapid, high quality feedback.''

Few professions have that. [[Expertise of military leaders and national security experts|In combat, military leaders can develop expert intuition on how to deliver death and destruction to designated targets.]] Political leaders develop expert intuition on how to say things that please people who control most of the money for the media.

However, 

* ''humanity needs broadly shared peace and prosperity for the long term.'' 

How can we obtain that when the processes by which political and military leaders are selected may be clandestinely hostile to that end? 

For example, to what extent is the world better or worse off for the US-led invasions of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003? What changes in the structure of the US and international political economy might produce better outcomes with crudely similar problems in the future?  

This article focuses largely on the cycle of violence that has plagued Israel-Palestine since the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. However the section on &quot;Implications for the future&quot; below suggests reforms that could have broader implications.

With members of the Knesset calling for using nuclear weapons in Gaza&lt;ref&gt;Khalid (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and concerns about the conflict between Israel and Iran spinning out of control,&lt;ref&gt;Belkaïd (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; any reasonable expense for alternatives that might stabilize this conflict might be very wise investment, even with substantial uncertainties about the outcomes.

== Research comparing violence and nonviolence == 

Twenty-first century research can help us estimate the probability distribution of alternative outcomes in violent and nonviolent conflict. Most relevant in this regard is the inventory of all the major violent and nonviolent governmental change efforts of the twentieth century compiled by Erica Chenoweth and Maria Stephan (2011). They identified over 200 violent revolutions and over 100 nonviolent campaigns, each of which attracted over 1,000 people at some point. 53 percent of the nonviolent campaigns were successful while only 25 percent of the violent revolutions were. 

[[File:Democratization 1 year after vs. 1 year before twentieth century revolutions.svg|thumb|upright=2|Figure 1. Democratization 1 year after (vertical scale) vs. 1 year before (horizontal scale) the end of twentieth century revolutions]]

Probably more important than the official success rate is the impact on democracy: Chenoweth and Stephan (2011) found that on average, nonviolent campaigns ''improved'' the level of democracy, while violent revolutions had no statistically significant impact on democracy. This was true whether the campaigns won or lost. The gains for democracy tended to be greater among the nonviolent campaigns that won than among those that lost. However, even the nonviolent campaigns that lost on average pushed their governments to be more democratic, to share power more broadly; see Figure 1.

Similarly, Chenoweth and Schock (2015) noted that the presence of a &quot;[[w:radical flank effect|radical flank]]&quot;, contemporary violence pursuing similar aims, tended to ''reduce'' the probability of success. See also Chenoweth (2016).

== The nonviolence of the First Intifada == 

The NAVCO 1.1 dataset&lt;ref&gt;Chenoweth (2019a).&lt;/ref&gt; compiled by Chenoweth and Stephan includes five campaigns in Palestine or involving Palestinians: 

# &quot;'''[[w:1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|Palestinian Arab Revolt]]'''&quot; in Palestine against &quot;Pro-Jewish British policies&quot; 1936-1939 coded as violent with limited success but with no change in Polity IV scores. 
# &quot;'''[[w:Mandatory Palestine#Beginning of Zionist Insurgency|Jewish resistance]]'''&quot; in &quot;Palestinian Territories&quot; against &quot;British occupation&quot; 1945-1948 coded as a violent success with no change in Polity IV scores.&lt;ref&gt;There are minor differences between how this is coded in NAVCO 1.1 and the description found in Wikipedia on 2024-03-31. For example, the section on &quot;[[w:Mandatory Palestine#Beginning of Zionist insurgency|Beginning of Zionist insurgency]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Mandatory Palestine|Mandatory Palestine]]&quot; mentions the assassination of &quot;Lord Moyne in Cairo&quot; 1944-11-06, while Chenoweth and Stephan (2011) coded this campaign as starting in 1945, not 1944. This discrepancy might be explained, as Chenoweth and Stephan only included cases where they &quot;were certain that more than 1,000 people were actively participating in the struggle, based on various reports.&quot; Chenoweth and Stephan may not have been able to document &quot;more than 1,000 people&quot; in that struggle prior to 1945. See also Chenoweth (2019b).&lt;/ref&gt; Chenoweth and Stephan (2011, p. 304) reported that only &quot;three successful violent insurgencies were succeeded by democratic regimes: the National Liberation Army’s 1948 victory in Costa Rica, the Jewish resistance in British-occupied Palestine, and the 1971 Bengali self-determination campaign against Pakistan. However, these instances represent only three cases out of fifty-five successful insurgencies in the twentieth century. They are as rare as authoritarian regimes that succeed victorious nonviolent campaigns. This variation points to a potentially fruitful avenue of future research&quot;, such as experiments suggested below in the section on, &quot;Implications for the future&quot;. 
# &quot;'''[[w:Black September|Palestinian activists]]'''&quot; in Jordan violently contesting &quot;Jordanian rule&quot; in 1970 coded as a failure with a modest decline from (-9) to (-10) in Polity IV scores, shifting Jordan to the most authoritarian point on the Polity IV scale.&lt;ref&gt;This doubtless refers to &quot;[[w:Black September|Black September]]&quot;, which Wikipedia reports as having run from 1970-09-06 to 1971-07-23, while NAVCO 1.1 codes both the beginning and end as 1970. This difference seems negligible for present purposes.&lt;/ref&gt; 
# '''The [[w:First Intifada|[First] Intifada]]''' in Palestine against &quot;Israeli occupation&quot; 1987-1990, coded as a partial success from nonviolence but with no change in Polity IV scores.&lt;ref&gt;The end date for the &quot;Intifada&quot; in NAVCO 1.1 is different from the description in Chenoweth and Stephan (2011), whose chapter 5 is titled, &quot;The First Palestinian Intifada, 1987-1992&quot;. The end date in the corresponding Wikipedia article was 1993-09-13 (when checked 2024-03-31), different from both the end dates in NAVCO 1.1 and Chenoweth and Stephan. However, it seems that these differences can be safely ignored for present purposes.&lt;/ref&gt; The work of Chenoweth and Schock (2015) and Chenoweth (2016) suggests that the success might have been greater, if the violence (&quot;radical flank&quot;) that appeared late in the campaign had not occurred. 
# '''The longer violent &quot;Palestinian Liberation&quot; campaign''' (1973- ) against &quot;Israeli occupation&quot; beginning in 1973 and still ongoing in 2006, coded as a failure with no change in Polity IV scores. 

''The nonviolence of the First Intifada did more to move Israeli public opinion to believe that they could live in peace and harmony with Palestinians than anything else Palestinians have done since the [[w:1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948 Arab–Israeli War]]'', at least according to the literature that we've found credible. 

When the First Intifada began, Yitzhak Rabin was Israel's Minister of Defense. He could see that the nonviolence could not be suppressed with massive counter violence for two reasons: 
# Excessive violence against nonviolent demonstrators generated bad press that was actually moving Israeli&lt;ref&gt;Peri (2012) described how Israeli public opinion towards Palestinians softened as Palestinian terrorist attacks receded into history and hardened in response to violence targeting Jews. On p. 23, he said, “In the 1990s -- during the peace process, which made it appear that the era of warfare was at an end and that Israel was becoming a postwar society -- the professional autonomy of the media grew, and journalists adopted a more critical stance. However, the failure of the peace talks in the summer of 2000 and the outbreak of the second Intifada with its suicide attacks aimed at the heart of the civilian population led to a serious retreat ... . State agencies and the public even more so again exerted pressure for media reorientation, demanding that the media restrain its criticism and circle the wagons.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and international opinion.&lt;ref&gt;King (2007).&lt;/ref&gt;
# Rabin knew that ''he could not count on soldiers to follow orders'' if they perceived their orders as out of proportion to the provocations.&lt;ref name=Peri1993&gt;Peri (1993) reported that, &quot;The Palestinian uprising in the Israeli-occupied territories that began in December 1987 poses challenges of an unprecedented nature and difficulty for Israeli society. One of those challenges comes in the form of a conscientious objection to perform military service. ... At the same time, however, some one hundred officers and noncommissioned soldiers have been tried and jailed for refusing to perform military service in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In addition to them, several thousands are in a gray area of refusal. These latter are not put on trial, and therefore no report about them goes to the higher military authorities or the public.&quot; Similarly, Peri (1996, p. 355) said that as the Intifada continued, Rabin &quot;had begun, in conversations with those close to him, to speak of a dimension that he would not dare to expand on publicly: that the war against the Intifada was damaging the [[w:Israeli Defense Forces|IDF]]'s fighting spirit, hurting army morale, and undermining the status of the status of the IDF as a people's army.&quot; Also, the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces|Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces]]&quot; lists several organizations of Israelis refusing to serve in occupied territories, e.g., in Lebanon in the late 1970s and in the West Bank and Gaza in the 1980s and 1990s.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Early in the Intifada, he had told his soldiers to shoot to wound, in the legs and feet. As the nonviolence and negative press continued, he issued clubs and ordered soldiers to beat people, breaking bones.&lt;ref&gt;Munayyer (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; But some 100 Israeli military went to prison rather than follow orders; several thousand others similarly refused but were not prosecuted.&lt;ref name=Peri1993/&gt; The first Israeli military to go to prison after the start of the First Intifada was reportedly [[w:Ofer Cassif|Ofer Cassif]], who later became a vocal supporter of [[w:South Africa's genocide case against Israel|South Africa's genocide case against Israel]] during the [[w:Israel-Hamas war|Israel-Hamas war]], as a member of the Knesset.&lt;ref&gt;Cassif et al. (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Before the Intifada, Rabin had not wanted to talk with Palestinians, saying, &quot;There was no point&quot;, because they always had to check with King Hussein of Jordan or President Mubarak of Egypt or President Assad of Syria.&lt;ref&gt;Peri (1996, p. 353).&lt;/ref&gt; That changed with the Intifada, because the Palestinians &quot;proved that for the first time in their history, they had decided to take charge of their fate.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peri (1996, p. 356).&lt;/ref&gt;

When the nonviolence continued, Rabin ran for Prime Minister on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. He became Prime Minister in 1992 ''and was reportedly pleased when his staff told him he would not have to negotiate with leaders of the nonviolence.''&lt;ref&gt;Shlaim (2014, p. 533): &quot;Rabin’s conversion to the idea of a deal with the PLO was clinched by four evaluations ... .First ... a settlement with Syria was attainable but only at the cost of complete Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights. Second ... the local Palestinian leadership had finally been neutralized. Third ... Arafat’s dire situation, and possible imminent collapse, made him the most convenient interlocutor ... . Fourth ... the impressive progress achieved through the Oslo channel. Other reports that reached Rabin during this period pointed to an alarming growth in the popular following of Hamas and Islamic Jihad in the occupied territories [which] stressed to him the urgency of finding a political solution&quot;. See also King (2007, ch. 12).&lt;/ref&gt; In September 1993, Rabin explained that the Palestinians would be better at protecting Israeli interests in the occupied territories than the Israeli military, 

{{quote|because they will allow no appeals to the Supreme Court and will prevent the Israeli Association of Civil Rights from criticizing the conditions there by denying it access to the area. They will rule by their own methods, freeing, and this is most important, the Israeli army soldiers from having to do what they will do.&lt;ref&gt;Usher (1996, p. 28), which cites ''[[w:Yedioth Ahronoth|Yedi'ot Ahronot]]'', 7 September 1993 as the source for this.&lt;/ref&gt;}} 

Israeli leaders sent in ''[[w:agent provocateur|agents provocateurs]]'', who were exposed and neutralized until Israel expelled 481 leaders of the nonviolence and arrested tens of thousands of others.&lt;ref&gt;The section on [[w:First Intifada#Casualties|Casualties]] of the Wikipedia article on the [[w:First Intifada|First Intifada]] cites at least one reference claiming that 57,000 were arrested; it also cites another claiming that 120,000 were arrested.&lt;/ref&gt; Finally Israel got the Palestinian violence needed to justify overwhelming counter violence. That violence also brought the ultra-Zionist right wing parties back to power in Israel.&lt;ref&gt;Mary Elizabeth King (2007, 2009) and Wikipedia, [[w:First Intifada|First Intifada]], accessed 2023-03-35.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Violence and nonviolence in the American Revolution== 

The &quot;[[w:Age of Revolution|Age of Revolution]]&quot; (1765-1849, including the French Revolution and the Latin American revolutions of the nineteenth century), plus the [[w:Russian Revolution|Russian]],&lt;ref&gt;There were actually two Russian Revolutions in 1917, the &quot;[[w:February Revolution|February]]&quot; and &quot;[[w:October Revolution|October]]&quot; Revolutions. The first was mostly nonviolent, resulting from massive popular displeasure with the management of the Russian political economy by the Tsar during World War I. The second was a violent reactions of the failures of the government that replace the Tsar, leading to the Russian Civil War. This sequence of events is crudely comparable to the First Intifada, in that the potential success of each was cut short by violence, with tragic consequences. We argue that a better popular understanding of nonviolence would likely have produced better results for both with much less loss of life.&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Chinese Communist Revolution|Chinese]],&lt;ref&gt;The Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Chinese Revolution|Chinese Revolution]]&quot; lists several revolutions, all violent, none enhancing democracy. The longest and most consequential was the [[w:Chinese Communist Revolution|Chinese Communist Revolution]] (1927-1949). That's the one that would come first to many people's minds. However, it was not the only one.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:Cuban revolutions|Cuban]] revolutions, as well as the violent post-World War II anti-colonial struggles of Africa and Asia&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[w: Decolonization#After 1945|After 1945]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Decolonization|Decolonization]]&quot;, accessed 2024-03-25.&lt;/ref&gt; all, from at least some perspectives, replaced one brutal repressive system with another. Many, perhaps all, have supporters who claim that common folk benefitted from that violence. For example, Napoleon introduced the [[w:Napoleonic Code|Napoleonic Code]], which has had a major influence on the civil code in many countries around the world, including the US state of Louisiana and most of Latin America and Eurasia.&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:List of national legal systems|List of national legal systems]], accessed 2024-04-01.&lt;/ref&gt; However, claims that any of this violence made substantive advances for freedom and democracy, liberty and justice are at best controversial, especially in the short term. 

The standard narrative of the American Revolution seems to suggest that the American Revolution was different from all those other attempts to emulate it: The US, according to this narrative, got freedom and democracy, liberty and justice for all from the violence of the American Revolution. 

The reality is more nuanced: The US got independence from Great Britain. However, claims that the US got more than that from the violence are controversial and largely contradicted by available evidence. Gaughan (2022) notes that at the time of the Revolution, Great Britain was a constitutional monarchy, which was extremely unusual during a global era of autocracy. &quot;In the British Isles, only 15 to 20 percent of English men could vote. In contrast, ... [t]he rate of enfranchisement varied from colony to colony. ... [A]s many as 80 percent of men could vote in some colonies but only 50 to 60 percent in other colonies. ... During the Revolutionary era, most states expanded suffrage to at least some degree.&quot; However, those expansions of the franchise occurred via ''nonviolent'' democratic deliberation as the existing legislatures of the 13 rebelling colonies either wrote state constitutions or revised their colonial charters to delete reference to Great Britain. 

After the [[w:Boston Tea Party|Boston Tea Party]] in 1773, Parliament ended local self government in Massachusetts. Then crowds of worried farmers prevented many judges appointed by the King from doing anything. A few judges were allowed to continue after promising to ignore the recent acts of Parliament and abide by the colonial charter, under which those judges were answerable to the locals, ''not'' to London.&lt;ref&gt;Raphael (2002).&lt;/ref&gt; If that kind of nonviolent response had been the dominant feature of the American Revolution instead of violence, the experience of Gandhi, King, Badshah Khan, and others described by Chenoweth and Stephan (2011), Chenoweth and Schock (2015), and Chenoweth (2016) suggests that the impact of the American Revolution on world history would likely have been more positive.&lt;ref&gt;See also [[The Great American Paradox]] and Graves (2005).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Other research on nonviolence ==

Previous nonviolent campaigns have often succeeded by inventing new methods of protest as needs and opportunities were identifed. After an approach obtains some level of success, people with power often develop countermeasures that reduce the effectiveness of a known technique going forward.  

Gene Sharp documented 198 nonviolent tactics.&lt;ref&gt;Sharp (1973).&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Nonviolence International|Nonviolence International]] maintains a growing database expanding Sharp's list of 198. By 2021, Nonviolence International had documented 148 more.&lt;ref&gt;Beer (2021, p. 7; 15/116 in pdf).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Role of the media in war == 

It has been said that the first casualty of war is truth.&lt;ref&gt;Knightly (2004) attributes this to US Senator Hiram Johnson in 1917. However, the consensus in multiple articles in Wikiquote seems to attribute it to [[Wikiquote:Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden|Philip Snowden]] in his introduction to Morel (1916, p. vii).&lt;/ref&gt; We suggest, however, that 

:''Truth typically dies long before the first blow is struck in anger.''

In most and perhaps virtually all violent conflicts, each party believes that their actions are justified by atrocities committed by their designated enemies. 

:''Collateral damage that &quot;they&quot; commit proves to us that &quot;they&quot; are subhuman or at best criminally misled and must be resisted by any means necessary. Meanwhile, collateral damage that we commit is unfortunate but necessary -- from our perspective.''

However, to supporters of our opposition, the collateral damage that we have committed proves to them that we are subhuman or at best criminally misled and must be resisted by any means necessary. This asymmetry of perceptions is amplified by the media each party consumes: Every media organization sells changes in audience behaviors to the people who give them money. A media organization with no audience has nothing to sell. If they have an audience but displease their funders, they may not continue to have the money needed to produce the content required to retain an audience.&lt;ref name=ConfBHow2know&gt;Wikiversity, &quot;[[Confirmation bias and conflict]]&quot; and &quot;[[How can we know?]]&quot;, accessed 2024.03.26.&lt;/ref&gt;  

Media organizations everywhere mislead their audiences. They do this easily, because everyone prefers information and sources consistent with preconceptions, a phenomenon called &quot;[[w:confirmation bias|confirmation bias]].&quot; Media organizations everywhere exploit confirmation bias to please those who control most of the money for the media.&lt;ref name = ConfB&gt;Wikiversity, &quot;[[Confirmation bias and conflict]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Wolfsfeld et al. (2002) noted that, &quot;The news media remain important agents for demonizing enemies and transforming political and military leaders into heroes. ... News is fundamentally ethnocentric, especially news about enemies ... because they threaten us.&quot; And violence attracts more attention than nonviolence. &quot;Battles are considered newsworthy, but ideas for preventing battles are not.&quot; Also, peace negotiations are usually conducted in extreme secrecy, because excessive publicity of negotiating positions could reduce the chances of success. Once an agreement is reached, the negotiators representing different parties to the conflict must then sell the agreement to their supporters. Prime Minister Rabin and King Hussein collaborated in supporting each other in selling the [[w:Israel–Jordan peace treaty|1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty]] to their respective peoples. 

A review of relevant literature identified multiple drivers of increases in political polarization in recent decades:&lt;ref&gt;For more on this see Wikiversity, &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-01.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Increased concentration of ownership''' of the media, exemplified by the creation of ''[[w:Israel Hayom|Israel Hayom]]'' by [[w:Sheldon Adelson|Sheldon Adelson]] in Israel and its impact on Israeli politics (discussed below),&lt;ref&gt;Grossman et al. (2022).&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[w:Vincent Bolloré|Bolloré]] in France,&lt;ref&gt;Cagé (2022).&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Rupert Murdoch|Murdoch]] in Australia, the UK and the US,&lt;ref&gt;Murdoch's business focus is exemplified in the settlement Fox accepted in ''[[w:Dominion Voting Systems v. Fox News Network|Dominion v. Fox]]'': Fox admitted that they had initially reported honestly that Biden had won the 2020 US Presidential elections. However, after finding that they were losing audience to election deniers, they switched to reporting false claims about Dominion. Fox agreed to pay Dominion $787.5 million, ''provided they did not have to apologize for having lied to their audience.'' If lying about the 2020 election increased their audience and revenue by 6% in 2021, they made money, even after paying $787.5 million to Dominion. Fraud can be good business. Media executives could be fired if they lose money trying to protect democracy.&lt;/ref&gt; and Sinclair in the US.&lt;ref&gt;Ellison (2024), Kaviani et al. (2022), Miho (2020). This trend has been extended historically to include exclusive access offered by [[w:Western Union|Western Union]], founded in 1851, to the [[w:Associated Press|Associated Press]] (AP) as long as AP reporters did not criticize major corporations and monopolies and the contribution of those biases to the rise of the [[w:Robber baron|Robber baron]]s in the US in the late nineteenth century, according to McChesney (2004, pp. 35-36): &quot;[E]conomic historians regard the growth of Western Union as a major factor in the dominance of big business in American life. ... Western Union used its monopoly power to collaborate in the development of the [[w:Associated Press| Associated Press]] [AP, founded 1846], a monopoly news service run in cooperative fashion with the largest newspaper publishers. ... With exclusive access to the wires -- Western Union refused to let potential competitors use its wires -- AP became the only wire news service in the nation. ... Needless to say, [AP] invariably presented a voice that took the side of business interests.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Increased concentration of ownership of the media in apparently free societies make them look more like the unfree press in authoritarian regimes like Saudi Arabia, where journalists are more often incarcerated and killed.&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi|On 2018-10-02 Saudi government agents killed Jamal Khashoggi]], a Saudi journalist working for the Washington Post, because they did not like his reporting. Similarly, Khouri (2024) reported that, &quot;For the past six months, Israel has put a lot of effort into covering up its genocidal crimes in Gaza. One of the most brutal ways it does this is by routinely threatening, targeting and assassinating Palestinian journalists. The US-based Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) has reported that at least 90 Palestinian journalists have been killed since October 7 alongside two Israelis and three Lebanese. This is the highest death toll of journalists in any modern conflict that CPJ has monitored.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; 
* '''The abolition of the [[w:Fairness doctrine|Fairness doctrine]]''' by the US [[w:Federal Communications Commission|Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) in 1987 and the subsequent adaptation of the major media in the US to the belief systems of their increasingly distinct audiences. ([[w:Market segmentation|Segmentation]], a standard business practice, produces political polarization threatening democracy when applied to media markets, especially when control is too concentrated.) 
* '''The rise of the &quot;click economy&quot;''', with Internet companies, especially social media like Facebook, making money from clicks. Their algorithms exploit confirmation bias in ways that increase political polarization. They herd people into echo chambers in which people become increasingly convinced of the rectitude of their own positions and increasingly ignorant of and insensitive -- and often hostile -- to the constructed realties of people with whom they disagree.&lt;ref&gt;Carter (2021) and Wikiversity, &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-01.&lt;/ref&gt; 
* '''The decline in the quantity and diversity of local news''', including the growth of news deserts and ghost newspapers.&lt;ref&gt;Abernathy (2020).&lt;/ref&gt; The decline in trusted local source(s) makes it easier for people to be misled by increasingly homogenized and biased corporate media and click bait.&lt;ref&gt;Darr et al. (2018, 2021), Zuboff (2018), Frenkel and Kang (2021), Vaidhyanathan (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; This has become so pervasive that it threatens the national security of the US and its allies according to retired Lt. General [[w:H. R. McMaster|McMaster]],&lt;ref&gt;McMaster (2020).&lt;/ref&gt; former President Trump's second National Security Advisor.&lt;ref&gt;For a discussion of changes like these in Germany, see Flößer (2024). He discussed the [[w:Alternative for Germany|Alternative for Germany]] (Alternatif für Deutschland, AfD), a right-wing populist, political party in Germany, that insists that [[w:German collective guilt|Germany should not feel shame or guilt]] from what it did when Hitler was their leader. Flößer said the AfD generally got more votes ''in places with no local newspaper.''&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;For more on the decline of local news, its impact, and what to do about it, see the section on [[International Conflict Observatory#The current legal environment for Internet and other media companies amplifies political polarization and conflict|The current legal environment for Internet and other media companies amplifies political polarization and conflict]] in the Wikiversity article on [[International Conflict Observatory]].&lt;/ref&gt; 

The abolition of the US Fairness Doctrine clearly had no legal implications outside the US. However, Grossman et al. (2022) documented an apparently similar &quot;sea change in the right’s dominance of national politics&quot; in Israel that primarily benefited Benjamin Netanyahu and his Likud party following the 2007 launch of ''[[w:Israel Hayom|Israel Hayom]]'' by billionaire casino magnate [[w:Sheldon Adelson|Sheldon Adelson]]. It was distributed for free, reportedly to skirt Israel's campaign finance laws. &quot;[I]t soon became the most widely read newspaper nationally.&quot; Their &quot;findings highlight the immense impact the ultrarich can exert in shaping politics through media ownership.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;See also  Lalwani (2022). Similar concerns about the impact on French politics of the media empire of billionaire Vincent Bollaré are expressed in Cagé (2022).&lt;/ref&gt; This shift was described by US Senator [[w:Bernie Sanders|Bernie Sanders]], himself Jewish, saying in March 2024, &quot;the Israel of today is not the Israel of … 20 to 30 years ago ... . It is a right-wing country, increasingly becoming a religious fundamentalist country where you have some of these guys in office believe that God told them they have a right to control the entire area.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hawkinson (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; Sander's comment is supported by Adelson's support for the claim that, &quot;the Palestinians are an invented people out to destroy Israel&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;Stoil (2014). Evidence from many sources suggests that the vast majority of Palestinians are ''not'' out to destroy Israel. Past Palestinian violence can be plausibly attributed to mistreatment they have experienced, unreported or underreported in the media consumed by most supporters of Israel.&lt;/ref&gt; a claim similar to the Zionist trope that Palestine was &quot;[[w:A land without a people for a people without a land|a land without a people for a people without a land]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;The extent to which this phrase helped drive the Zionist movement of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries is controversial. See the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:A land without a people for a people without a land|a land without a people for a people without a land]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-03.&lt;/ref&gt; 

''Israel Hayom'' is often called &quot;Bibiton&quot;, which is a portmanteau of &quot;Bibi&quot;, a nickname for Benjamin Netanyahu, and &quot;iton&quot;, the Hebrew word for newspaper. Adelson was accused&lt;ref&gt;Fulbright and Surkes (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; but not charged in the on-going corruption trial against Netanyahu&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:Trial of Benjamin Netanyahu|Trial of Benjamin Netanyahu]]&quot;. Netanyahu and his supporters have been working to undermine the judiciary to protect themselves from the issues raised in this trial, as documented in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:2023 Israeli judicial reform|2023 Israeli judicial reform]]&quot;, accessed 2024-03-27. However, the issues raised in this legal battle are not as obviously related to questions of the role of the media in conflict, the topic of the present discussion.&lt;/ref&gt; and died before he was scheduled to testify in that trial.&lt;ref&gt;Alterman (2021).&lt;/ref&gt;

A 2022 survey in Israel found that ''Israel Hayom'' had the largest weekday readership exposure of any newspapers in Israel at 31%. The second and third most popular newspapers were ''[[w:Yedioth Ahronoth|Yedioth Ahronoth]]'' with 23.9% and ''[[w:Haaretz|Haaretz]]'' with 4.7% readership exposure.&lt;ref&gt;Readership figures are from a Hebrew-language document cited in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Newspapers in Israel|Newspapers in Israel]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-03.&lt;/ref&gt; ''Yedioth Ahronoth'' tends to support former Israeli minister [[w:Tzipi Livni|Tzipi Livni]], who has been a leading Israeli politician advocating restraining expansion of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and negotiating with Palestinians; anything like this has been vigorously opposed by the editorial policies of ''Israel Hayom''. However, her support for Palestinians had limits, as indicated by a warrant for her arrest that was reportedly issued by a British court under universal jurisdiction, following an application by lawyers acting for Palestinian victims of the [[w:Gaza War (2008–2009)|2008-2009 Gaza war]]&lt;ref&gt;Also called &quot;Operation Cast Lead&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; for her role in that operation as Israeli Foreign Minister. (The warrant was reportedly dropped with apologies from British political leaders after her visit to the UK was canceled.)&lt;ref&gt;Black and Cobain (2009).&lt;/ref&gt;

Political polarization doubtless exists between and within different groups supporting Palestinians and Israel driven by differences in the media they consume. Those differences in perception help perpetuate the conflict to the detriment of all.

More generally, 

* ''we are all prisoners of the media we find credible, except for leaders (especially elected officials), who are prisoners of the media their followers find credible.''

== Implications for the future == 

What might be done to break the cycle of violence that has plagued Palestine and Israel since the 1917 Balfour declaration? 

Several ideas come to mind: 

=== Equal protection of the laws === 

* ''Everyone believes in rule of law, except people with power, who believe that they should be above the law.''&lt;ref&gt;[[q:Anacharsis|Anacharsis]] in ancient Athens said that laws are like spiders' webs: Strong enough to hold little flies but not big ones. [[w:Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]]'s [[w:The Prince|''Prince'']] claimed it had to be that way, because the alternative was worse. The present discussion contradicts Machiavelli's claims, recommending strengthening rule of law.&lt;/ref&gt;  

Can enough Palestinians publicly and effectively renounce violence that it actually moves Israeli and international public opinion enough to force Israel to provide something like equal protection of the laws? Israel was moved in that direction by the nonviolence of the First Intifada. It could happen again. 

It would be great if Palestinians and / or Israelis and their supporters took the lead, but others do not have to wait for that. 

Rep. [[w:Marjorie Taylor Greene|Marjorie Taylor Greene]] (R-GA) has introduced several motions in the US House of Representatives to try to censure Rep. [[w:Ilhan Omar|Ilhan Omar]] (D-MN) for having said, &quot;From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free.&quot; Greene claimed that phrase was a Hamas slogan and &quot;calls for genocide of all Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bahney (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; This has created problems for several Jewish members of the Congressional Progressive Caucus, who oppose Omar's use of that phrase but support her against censure on free speech grounds.&lt;ref&gt;Grayer (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; If Omar and others could ask instead for &quot;equal protect of the laws&quot;, it would be harder for people (like Greene) to oppose and easier for Jews and others to support.&lt;ref&gt;For more background on the use and interpretation of that and similar phrases by different groups, see the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:From the river to the sea|From the river to the sea]]&quot;, accessed 2024-04-09.&lt;/ref&gt;

Less well known is the portion of [[w:From the river to the sea|the 1977 election manifesto of the right-wing Israeli Likud party]] that, &quot;Between the sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Likud Party (1977).&lt;/ref&gt; Whether or not Ilhan Omar was intending to call for genocide of Jews, the current Israeli government, whose Prime Minister leads [[w:Likud|Likud]], has been [[w:South Africa's genocide case against Israel|accused of ''actual'' genocide]] in a complaint to the [[w:International Court of Justice|International Court of Justice]].&lt;ref&gt;[[w:South Africa v. Israel (Genocide Convention)|''South Africa v. Israel'' (2023)]].&lt;/ref&gt; The alleged denials of equal protection of the laws to Palestinians might be attributed in part to the editorial policies of the leading newspaper in Israel, ''Israel Hayom'', funded by Adelson and delivered for free to anyone who wants it. 

Perhaps it's better to avoid phrases like that entirely and instead demand something like &quot;equal protection of the laws.&quot; That principle was promised by the [[w:Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution]], passed in 1868 and is still far from being implemented.&lt;ref&gt;The phrase &quot;equal protection of the laws&quot; are the last 5 words of [[w:Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Section 1: Citizenship and civil rights|Section 1 of that amendment]]. That amendment has reportedly been the most frequently litigated part of the Constitution, and Section 1 has reportedly been the most frequently litigated part of the amendment. Just such a case active as this is being written in ''Johnson v. Parson'' (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Let's broaden this question: What percent of the enemies of any country are primarily a result of routine denial of equal protection of the laws by people with power? The documentation summarized here suggests that the Palestinian violence since the Oslo Accords has largely been due to mistreatment, extended incarcerations without charges or trial, destruction of property, taking property at gun point, and even murder by Israeli security forces and settlers, unreported or underreported in the major media consumed by supporters of Israel, as noted by [[w:Ofer Cassif|Ofer Cassif]], a Jewish member of the Knesset. He said that Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu released [[w:Yahya Sinwar|Yahya Sinwar]], the violent leader of Hamas, in a prisoner exchange in 2011, and did ''not'' release [[w:Marwan Barghouti|Marwan Barghouti]], who has been called a Palestinian Mandela. Is ''nonviolence'' a bigger threat than violence to the 1977 Likud promise, &quot;Between the sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty&quot;?&lt;ref&gt;Cassif et al. (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Similarly, there is substantial documentation of routine denial of equal protection to foreigners by the US&lt;ref name=US&gt;The Wikiversity article on &quot;[[1998 Embassy bombings and September 11]]&quot;, accessed 2024-10-21, cites documentation supporting two claims: (1) The 1998 embassy bombing was retaliation for US complicity in torture. (2) The suicide mass murders of September 11, 2001, might not have occurred if the US had treated the 1998 embassy bombings as a law enforcement issue.&lt;/ref&gt; and France,&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., the Wikipedia articles on [[w:Françafrique|Françafrique]] and [[w:François-Xavier Verschave|François-Xavier Verschave]] (accessed 2024-04-22), whose books titled &quot;''Françafrique'' (1999) and ''Noir silence'' (2020) have become standard works for anyone interested in the Rwandan genocide specifically, and generally the dissimulated policies followed by the French Republic in former colonies.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; to name only two countries for which substantial documentation is available.

=== Limit state secrets privilege === 

Equal protection of the laws cannot be guaranteed without limiting the ability of governments to ''deny'' equal protection in secret. In the US, this would require modifying the law governing &quot;[[w:State secrets privilege|state secrets privilege]]&quot;. 

Under past and current US secrecy practices, US government officials have provoked foreign entities to do things that were then denounced as unprovoked to justify counterproductive uses of military force. Current US government secrecy practices encourage such dangerous behaviors, according to documentation in Connelly (2023).&lt;ref&gt;See also the summary in Connelly, Samuelson, and Graves (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; The US responses to the 1998 embassy bombings and the September 11 attacks are examples.&lt;ref name=US/&gt; The 1997 report of the [[w:Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy|Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] reached conclusions similar to those of Connelly. Lying to Congress may officially be illegal, but exposing such lies has been punished severely while people who deceived Congress were rewarded, as documented with the revelations of [[w:Edward Snowden|Edward Snowden]]. Worse, [[w:Richard Barlow (intelligence analyst)|Richard Barlow]]'s career was reportedly destroyed merely for telling his managers they should not lie to Congress.  He did ''not'' expose officially classified government secrets but only filed suit for wrongful termination. 

[[w:Daniel Hale|Daniel Hale]] was sentenced to 45 months in prison for leaking a document that showed that during a five-month operation in Afghanistan, &quot;nearly 90% of the people killed during one five-month period ... were not the intended targets.&quot; Rep. Ilhan Omar asked President Biden to pardon Hale, because ''none of the documents released actually threatened US national security but instead &quot;shone a vital light on the legal and moral problems of the drone program and informed the public debate on an issue that has for too many years remained in the shadows.&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;Johnson (2021).&lt;/ref&gt; Similar things can be said about other whistleblowers and [[w:Julian Assange|Julian Assange]].&lt;ref&gt;See also Graves (2014, 2021).&lt;/ref&gt; 

The need for that much secrecy is further challenged by the research by Tetlock and Gardner (2015), who reported that their &quot;superforecasting&quot; teams &quot;''performed about 30 percent better'' than the average for intelligence community analysts who could read intercepts and other secret data&quot; in forecasting problems assigned by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).&lt;ref&gt;Tetlock and Gardner (2015, p. 95).&lt;/ref&gt; If important intelligence questions can be answered -- and answered ''better'' -- without government secrecy, that reinforces the conclusions of Connelly (2023) and others, that 

:* ''excessive government secrecy threatens more than advances US national security.''&lt;ref&gt;Connelly (2023); see also the summary in Connelly, Samuelson and Graves (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 

We need government secrecy for some things, e.g., design and production technologies for sophisticated weapon systems and military plans for future operations.&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2014).&lt;/ref&gt; However, as the Moynihan Commission and Connelly reported, that's a tiny fraction of the information currently held as government secrets. Both claimed that the US would be safer and more prosperous if it limited government secrets to the things where government secrecy is really important. 

Might similar considerations apply to Israel and Palestine?

=== Support training in nonviolence === 

As noted above, the nonviolence of the First Intifada led to the election of Yitzhak Rabin as Prime Minister of Israel on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. This, in turn, led to the Oslo Accords and the current State of Palestine. As the time since the [[w:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|Hamas attacks on Israel of 2023-10-07]] has increased, more people in Israel,&lt;ref&gt;Wilkinson and Yam (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; the US and internationally have become increasingly concerned that the ferocity of Israeli attacks on Gaza (and the West Bank) seems far beyond the national security needs of Israel and out of proportion to the provocation.&lt;ref&gt;Mackenzie and Al-Mughrabi (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, people are concerned that Israeli military attacks in Lebanon&lt;ref&gt;The Wikipedia article on [[w:2024 in Lebanon|2024 in Lebanon]] listed 8 attacks by Israel that killed at least 15 people in the first three months of 2024, when checked 2024-04-02.&lt;/ref&gt; and Syria&lt;ref&gt;Israel conducted lethal air strikes against alleged Iranian targets in Syria -- Aleppo March 29 and Damascus April 1, per Reuters (2024) and Bowen (2024); see also [[w:2024 Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus|2024 Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus]], accessed 2024-04-03.&lt;/ref&gt; threaten unnecessary expansion of the war.&lt;ref&gt;Peri (2020) claimed that Netanyahu's government had shifted more to the right in recent years, increasing the gap between military and political leaders. It could be helpful to have an update on how this split has impacted the current Israel-Hamas war and vice versa.&lt;/ref&gt; A new nonviolent movement led by Palestinians could strengthen people in Israel and elsewhere who are opposed to the current war.  

Palestinians and others could ask the US and Israel to support training in nonviolent civil disobedience for anyone interested, including designated &quot;terrorists&quot;. A demand like this should be difficult for people to oppose and could make it easier for people in many places to effectively work toward equal protection of the laws and for redress of other grievances. 

However, it is currently a criminal violation of the USA [[w:Patriot Act|Patriot Act]] to provide such training to anyone designated as a &quot;terrorist&quot; by the US State Department, per the Supreme Court decision in ''[[w:Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project|Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project]]'' (2010). That law should be changed to ''support'' rather than ''criminalize'' such training.

How might the world be different if the US had vigorously supported rather than criminalized training Hamas and other designated &quot;terrorists&quot; in nonviolence? In particular, what are the chances that the [[w:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|Hamas-led attack on Israel of 2023-10-07]] would have happened if Palestinians could have seen progress in response to nonviolent protests against many of the outrages documented by the [[w:Palestinian Centre for Human Rights|Palestinian Centre for Human Rights]] and others? Currently few supporters of Israel seem to have any substantive awareness of the many outrages against Palestinians committed by people they support, because the media they find credible rarely if ever provides a balanced account of such outrages. If the US government had more openly supported such training, nonviolent protests facilitated by that training would likely have gotten better coverage in Israeli and international news. That in turn would likely have made it harder for the Israeli government to continue depriving Palestinians of equal protection of the laws so egregiously. It may also have made Palestinian government entities more responsive to the concerns of their people, which also could have reduced the risks of events like those of 2023-10-07.

=== Citizen-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits === 

The Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot; suggests randomized controlled trials to evaluate the long-term impact of citizen-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits distributed via local elections, as recommended by McChesney and Nichols (2021, 2022). They suggest distributing 0.15% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to local news non-profits via local elections with a limit on the maximum that any one local news organization could receive. Evidence summarized in that Wikiversity article suggests that the increases in political polarization in many countries in recent years may be due in part to a loss of local news, as advertising money has increasingly shifted to Internet companies that hire few if any journalists. 

To apply this to Israel and Palestine, we first note that their nominal GDPs in 2021 were $482 and $18 billion US$, respectively, totaling $500 billion.&lt;ref&gt;UN (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 0.15% of those numbers is $723 and $27 million, totaling $750 million. That may sound like a lot of money, but it's only 3.2% of the 2022 military budget of Israel of $23.4 billion.&lt;ref&gt;SIPRI (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; It's also roughly three times what Israel was spending ''each day'' in the first month of the Israel-Hamas war,&lt;ref&gt;Masters and Merrow (2024).&lt;/ref&gt;, 21% of the $3.6 billion that the US gave Israel in 2021, and 3% of the $26 billion that the US reportedly authorized for Israel 2024-04-24.&lt;ref&gt;Madhani and Kim (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

If media subsidies like these make a substantive contribution to reducing the political polarization that has driven this conflict at least since the creation of Israel in 1948, it should help build broadly shared peace and prosperity for the long term for Israelis and Palestinians. If it also reduced the calls for Israel to use nuclear weapons in Gaza&lt;ref&gt;Khalid (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; or eased relations between Israel and Iran,&lt;ref&gt;Belkaïd (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; it would be money well spent. 

If any of these things happen, it would likely be the best investment in national security that Israel has made ever. This conjecture rests on the claims made above about news deserts, the &quot;click economy&quot;, and ''Israel Hayom''. If this works as predicted, it would also provide a shining example of new social technology that could help diffuse many other seemingly intractable conflicts around the globe.

=== Conclusions === 

We are not advocating an answer but a methodology that leading organizations have used successfully to build effective marketing campaigns worth billions of dollars: (i) Start by enunciating an objective like building broadly shared peace and prosperity while ending a cycle of violence. (ii) Brainstorm alternative approaches. (iii) Evaluate and refine them in focus groups. (iv) Test market the ones that seem most promising, and (v) go with what seems to work, (vi) while continuing to monitor results and adjusting accordingly. 

You, dear reader, may have other ideas that might be more effective than any of the things discussed herein to break the cycle of violence and build broadly shared peace and prosperity for the long term.

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Penny Abernathy (2020)  News Deserts and Ghost Newspapers: Will local news survive?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100251717}} 
* &lt;!-- Eric Alterman (2021-02-08) &quot;Even in Death, Sheldon Adelson Will Keep Undermining Democracy&quot;, The Nation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125145267}}
* &lt;!--- Jennifer Bowers Bahney (2023-11-06) &quot;Here We Go Again: Marjorie Taylor Greene Introduces New Censure Resolution Against Rashida Tlaib&quot;, Microsoft Start --&gt;{{cite Q|Q125246907}}
* &lt;!-- Akram Belkaïd (2024-05) &quot;Israel-Iran: spiral to war in the Middle East&quot;, Le Monde diplo--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125877358}} 
* &lt;!-- Ian Black and Ian Cobain (2009) &quot;British court issued Gaza arrest warrant for former Israeli minister Tzipi Livni--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125157422)}}
* &lt;!-- Revital Blumenfeld (2011-12-26) &quot;Sheldon Adelson to Birthright Group: Gingrich Is Right to Call Palestinians 'Invented People'&quot;, Haaretz--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125302285}}
* &lt;!-- Jeromy Bowen (2024-04-01) &quot;Iran accuses Israel of killing generals in Syria strike&quot;, BBC--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125308201}}
* &lt;!-- Julia Cagé (4 February 2022). Pour une télé libre : Contre Bolloré (in fr; Éditions du Seuil)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q120891998}}
* &lt;!--Timothy Carter (8 February 2021). &quot;The Click Economy: Is There a Future?&quot;, ReadWrite--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125153120}}
* &lt;!-- Cassif et al. (2024) &quot;Against genocide: A conversation with Ofer Cassif&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125559918}} 
* &lt;!-- Erica Chenoweth (2016-11-21) People are in the streets protesting Donald Trump. But when does protest actually work?, Washington Post--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125360193}}
* &lt;!-- Erica Chenoweth (2019a) NAVCO 1.1 Dataset--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125247341|date=2019a}}
* &lt;!-- Erica Chenoweth (2019b) WCRW Web Appendix.pdf--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125247400|date=2019b}}
* &lt;!-- Erica Chenoweth and Kurt Schock (2015) Do Contemporaneous Armed Challenges Affect the Outcomes of Mass Nonviolent Campaigns?, Mobilization--&gt;{{cite Q|Q83970885}}
* &lt;!-- Erica Chenoweth; Maria J. Stephan (2011). Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict (Columbia U. Pr.)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q88725216}}
* &lt;!-- Connelly (2023) The Declassification Engine: What History Reveals About America's Top Secrets--&gt;{{cite Q|Q116786691}}
* &lt;!-- Connelly, Samuelson and Graves (2023) Does US government secrecy threaten national security?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125582094}}
* &lt;!-- Darr, Hitt, and Dunaway (2018) &quot;Newspaper Closures Polarize Voting Behavior&quot;, J. of Communication--&gt;{{cite Q|Q61311391}} 
* &lt;!-- Darr, Hitt, and Dunaway (2021)  Home Style Opinion: How Local Newspapers Can Slow Polarization--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125287538}} 
* &lt;!-- Sarah Ellison (2024-02-16) &quot;Sinclair's recipe for TV news: Crime, homelessness, illegal drugs&quot;, Washington Post--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125271605}}
* &lt;!--Maxim Floßer (2024-03-06) &quot;Keine Lokalzeitung -- mehr AfD&quot;, Kontext--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125287792}}
* &lt;!--Sheera Frenkel; Cecilia Kang (July 2021). An Ugly Truth: Inside Facebook's Battle for Domination (Harper)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q107560533}}
* &lt;!-- Alexander Fulbright and Sue Surkes (2017-06-26) &quot;Adelson testifies for second time in Netanyahu corruption probe&quot;, Times of Israel --&gt;{{cite Q|Q125303432}}
* &lt;!-- Anthony J. Gaughan (2022-12-30) Voting in Colonial and Revolutionary America--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125260096}}
* &lt;!-- Graves (2005) Violence, Nonviolence, and the American Revolution--&gt;{{cite Q|Q58635938}} 
* &lt;!-- Graves (2014) Restrict secrecy more than data collection--&gt;{{cite Q|Q106512569}}
* &lt;!-- Graves (2021) Congressional Gold Medals for Assange, Hale, Barlow, Winner, Manning, Edmonds, Sterling, Drake, Snowden, Ellsberg--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125570226}}
* &lt;!-- Annie Grayer (2024-03-29) &quot;Progressive Jewish lawmakers caught in the middle of bitter Democratic divide over Israel&quot;, CNN--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125247599}}
* &lt;!-- Guy Grossman, Yotam Margalit, and Tamar Mitts (2022-10) &quot;How the Ultrarich Use Media Ownership as a Political Investment&quot;, The Journal of Politics, 84(4)1913-1931--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125248630}} 
* &lt;!-- Katie Hawkinson (2024-03-27) &quot;Bernie Sanders says Israel is ‘becoming a religious fundamentalist country’&quot;, Independent--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125250312}}
* &lt;!-- Hulse (2015) Florida Ex-Senator Pursues Claims of Saudi Ties to Sept. 11 Attacks--&gt;{{cite Q|Q65002265}}
* &lt;!-- Johnson v. Parson (2024) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q125559456}}
* &lt;!-- Jake Johnson (2021) &quot;Ilhan Omar to Joe Biden: Pardon Drone Whistleblower Daniel Hale&quot;, Common Dreams--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125571612}}
* &lt;!-- Kahneman and Klein (2009) Conditions for intuitive expertise: a failure to disagree--&gt;{{cite Q|Q35001791}}
* &lt;!-- Mahsa Kaviani, Lily Yuanzhi Li, and Hosein Maleki (2022) Media, Partisan Ideology, and Corporate Social Responsibility--&gt;{{cite Q|Q121493540}}
* &lt;!-- Tuqa Khalid (2023-11-19) &quot;Deputy Knesset speaker calls for ‘burning down Gaza’ as Israel is ‘too humane’&quot;, Al Arabiya--&gt;{{cite Q| Q125877184}}
* &lt;!-- Rami G Khouri (2024-04-02) &quot;Watching the watchdogs: Israel’s attacks on journalists are backfiring&quot;, Al Jazeera English--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125274545}} 
* &lt;!-- Mary Elizabeth King (2007) A quiet revolution: the first Palestinian Intifada and nonviolent resistance (Bold Type Books)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q123299945}}
* &lt;!-- Mary E. King (2009) &quot;Palestinian civil resistance against Israeli military occupation&quot;, ch. 10, pp. 131-155, in Maria Stephan, ed. (2009) Civilian Jihad: Nonviolent struggle, democratization, and governance in the Middle East (Macmillan)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q108909718}}
*&lt;!-- Phillip Knightley (2004) The First Casualty, 5th ed. (Johns Hopkins U. Pr.)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q118227485}}
* &lt;!--Nikita Lalwani (2022-12-06) &quot;Rich people who own newspapers can shift elections. Israel shows how.&quot;, Washington Post--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125303071}}
* &lt;!-- Tovah Lazaroff (2022-01-19/20) &quot;World silent on Palestinian ‘terror attacks with rocks,’ Erdan tells UNSC&quot;, Jerusalem Post--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125250960}}
* &lt;!-- Likud Party (1977) Original Party Platform--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125558709}}
* &lt;!-- James Mackenzie and Nidal Al-Mughrabi (2024-04-05) Six months into Gaza war, Israel faces deepening isolation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125352433}}
* &lt;!--Aamer Madhani and Seung Min Kim (2024-04-24) &quot;Biden says the US is rushing weaponry to Ukraine as he signs a $95 billion war aid measure into law&quot;, AP--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125640305}}
* &lt;!--  Jonathan Masters and Will Merrow (2024-04-11) U.S. Aid to Israel in Four Charts--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125638814}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney (2004) The problem of the media (Monthly Review Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7758439}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2021). &quot;The Local Journalism Initiative: a proposal to protect and extend democracy&quot;. Columbia Journalism Review, 30 November 2021 --&gt;{{cite Q|Q109978060}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2022), To Protect and Extend Democracy, Recreate Local News Media (PDF), FreePress.net (updated 25 January 2022) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q109978337}}
* &lt;!-- H. R. McMaster (2020). Battlegrounds: The Fight to Defend the Free World (HarperCollins)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104774898}}
* &lt;!-- Antonela Miho (2020) Small Screen, Big Echo? Estimating the Political Persuasion of Local Television News Bias using Sinclair Broadcast Group as a Natural Experiment--&gt;{{cite Q|Q120895467}}
* &lt;!-- E. D. Morel (1916-07) Truth and the War (National Labor Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125251272}}
* &lt;!-- Yousef Munayyer (2011) &quot;Palestine’s Hidden History of Nonviolence&quot;, Foreign Policy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125419587}}
* &lt;!-- Yoram Peri (1993), Israel: Conscientious Objection in a Democracy under Siege, pp. 146–157, ch. 12 in Charles Moskos; John Whiteclay Chambers II, eds. (1993). The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance (Oxford U. Pr.)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125141486|chapter=unset|volume = Moscos and Chambers (eds.) The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance}}
* &lt;!-- Yoram Peri (1996) Afterword in&quot; The Rabin Memoirs, Expanded Edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125500087|author=Yoram Peri|title=''&quot;Afterword&quot; in'' The Rabin Memoirs}}
* &lt;!-- Yoram Peri (2012) &quot;The impact of national security on the development of media systems: The case of Israel&quot;, ch. 2 in Comparing media systems beyond the Western world--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125350983|chapter=unset|volume = Hallin and Mancini (eds.) Comparing media systems beyond the Western world}}
* &lt;!--Yoram Peri (2020) &quot;The Widening Military–political Gap in Israel&quot;, SWP Comment--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125364273}}
* &lt;!--Jeremy Pressman (2017) &quot;Throwing stones in social science: Non-violence, unarmed violence, and the first intifada&quot;, Cooperation and Conflict--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125419819}}
* &lt;!-- Ray Raphael (2002) The First American Revolution (he New Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q59420225}}
* &lt;!-- Reuters (2023-10-25) Israel to amend budget, Gaza war direct cost at $246 mln daily--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124336510|author=Reuters}}
* &lt;!-- Reuters (2024-03-29) &quot;Israel hits Syria in heaviest raid on Iran proxies in months--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125308182|author=Reuters}}
* &lt;!--  Nic Robertson and Kelly Wallace (2001) U.S. rejects Taliban offer to try bin Laden--&gt;{{cite Q|Q114923316}}
* &lt;!-- Jeremy Sharon (2024-03-20). &quot;Livni testifies at Netanyahu corruption trial she was surprised by PM's sudden change of view on newspaper law&quot;, The Times of Israel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125145096}} 
* &lt;!--Gene Sharp (1973) The Politics of Nonviolent Action (3 vols., Porter Sargent)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7757693}}
* &lt;!--Avi Shlaim (2014) The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World, 2nd ed. (Penguin)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124213243}}
* &lt;!--SIPRI Military Expenditure Database--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125356573|date=2024-04-05|author=SIPRI}} 
* &lt;!-- South Africa v. Israel (2023)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124208778}}
* &lt;!-- Rebecca Shimoni Stoil (2014) Adelson: Palestinians an invented people out to destroy Israel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125616092}}
* &lt;!--Mira Sucharov (2022-10-26) “Do American Jews Really Know What 'Zionist' Means?”, Haaretz--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125903777}}
* &lt;!-- Phil Tetlock and Gardner (2015) Superforecasting: The Art and Science of Prediction--&gt;{{cite Q|Q21203378}}
* &lt;!--UN Basic Data Selection--&gt;{{cite Q|Q120485981|date=2023-07-06|title=2021 GDP (nominal)|author=UN Basic Data Selection}}
* &lt;!-- Graham Usher (1996) &quot;The Politics of Internal Security: The PA's New Intelligence Services&quot;, Journal of Palestine Studies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127171442}}
* &lt;!-- Siva Vaidhyanathan (12 June 2018). Antisocial Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56027099}}
* &lt;!-- Tracy Wilkinson and Marcus Yam (2024-04-03) News Analysis: Netanyahu faces massive protests in Israel. Could the war in Gaza be his undoing?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125352382}}
* &lt;!-- Ian Williams (2022-03) &quot;Hasbara and a Stone: Israel’s Ambassador Brings Both to the U.N.&quot;, Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125251295}}
* &lt;!--Gadi Wolfsfeld, Rami Khouri, Yoram Peri (2002) &quot;News About the Other in Jordan and Israel: Does Peace Make a Diﬀerence?&quot;, Political Communication, 19:189–210,--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125474891}}
* &lt;!-- Shoshana Zuboff (2018) The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power--&gt;{{cite Q|Q75804726}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Government]]
[[Category:News]] 
[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Political economy]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Corruption]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:war]]
[[Category:violence]]
[[Category:terrorism]]
[[Category:Conflicts]]
[[Category:nonviolence]]
[[Category:State of Palestine]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka</title>
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    <id>321771</id>
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      <id>2818068</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>moving abstract</comment>
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      <text bytes="94484" sha1="npjgmix1p5hm7uqcl7768tlyxefo8cc" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
| last1 = Azeez
| orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614
| first1 = Aaqib
| last2 = 
| first2 = 
| last3 = 
| first3 = 
| last4 = 
| first4 = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Old Dominion University
| correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com
| affiliations = institutes / affiliations
| correspondence = email@address.com
| keywords = &lt;!-- up to 6 keywords --&gt;
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = Mental health issues continue to be a significant problem in Sri Lanka, with 2022 suicide rates in the country at 15 per 100,000 people, above the global average of 10.5 per 100,000 people[1]. The barriers to mental healthcare on the island are multi-faceted and are best understood with historical context. This narrative review covers the historical developments of mental healthcare to the present-day, impacts of historical events within the last 100 years, current challenges affecting mental health outcomes, the role of the major religions in mental health and mental healthcare, and recommendations for future mental healthcare improvement. The author uses peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports to support clinical and historical statements, though non-peer-reviewed sources were used to contextualize historical and non-clinical claims. The narrative review concludes that outdated legislation, impacts from recent conflicts or disasters, stigma surrounding mental health, and economic vulnerability contribute to mental health issues and the inefficiency of mental healthcare services. The author recommends updating legal frameworks, expansion of services, and raising awareness to mitigate social stigma.
}}

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain concerning despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka. Sources used included peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan journals, and official Sri Lankan governmental websites displaying relevant statistics/reports. Studies included were published prior to 2026. Keywords used to conduct searches include, but not limited to, were: &quot;Sri Lanka mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka civil war trauma&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka suicide&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka mental health ordinances&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka religion and mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka public mental healthcare&quot;, and &quot;Sri Lanka poverty/economic crisis mental health impact.&quot; Studies that were included were relevant to the topic (Sri Lanka, South Asian mental health law, suicide, public mental health, conflict/disaster trauma, or cultural/religious practice), had full text available, and were in the English language. Non-peer-reviewed sources were primarily used to explain historical claims or contextualize non-clinical claims. ''[include date of final search when needed]'' 

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had &quot;the spirit of the Gods within him&quot; and &quot;whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were &quot;placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world&quot;, with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a &quot;large scale segregation of mentally ill from society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. 

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of significant renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.   

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The LTTE waged decades of massacres, assassinations of political figures, and suicide bombings to achieve ''[[w:Tamil_Eelam|Tamil Eelam]],'' leading to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians evacuating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns initiated by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009).]]
Accusation of war crimes have been leveraged towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]]&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report alleged that the Sri Lankan government considered the native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shellings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Vanni population also faced recruitment campaigns by the LTTE, where recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, were utilized for war efforts.  

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were poorl&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions].&quot; Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Anti-Muslim sentiment was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced significant inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values are encouraged to be emphasized across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against groups criticized for promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been officially approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka]]</text>
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| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
| last1 = Azeez
| orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614
| first1 = Aaqib
| last2 = 
| first2 = 
| last3 = 
| first3 = 
| last4 = 
| first4 = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Old Dominion University
| correspondence1 = aaqib.azeez@yahoo.com
| affiliations = institutes / affiliations
| correspondence = email@address.com
| keywords = &lt;!-- up to 6 keywords --&gt;
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = Mental health issues continue to be a significant problem in Sri Lanka, with 2022 suicide rates in the country at 15 per 100,000 people, above the global average of 10.5 per 100,000 people[1]. The barriers to mental healthcare on the island are multi-faceted and are best understood with historical context. This narrative review covers the historical developments of mental healthcare to the present-day, impacts of historical events within the last 100 years, current challenges affecting mental health outcomes, the role of the major religions in mental health and mental healthcare, and recommendations for future mental healthcare improvement. The author uses peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports to support clinical and historical claims, though non-peer-reviewed sources were used to contextualize historical and non-clinical claims. The narrative review concludes that outdated legislation, impacts from recent conflicts or disasters, stigma surrounding mental health, and economic vulnerability contribute to mental health issues and the inefficiency of mental healthcare services. The author recommends updating legal frameworks, expanding services, and raising awareness to mitigate social stigma.
}}

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain concerning despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
A narrative review was conducted on mental health in Sri Lanka. Sources used included peer-reviewed journal articles, relevant books, historical documents, and governmental/non-governmental reports. These sources were found on Google Scholar, PubMed/PMC, Sri Lankan journals, and official Sri Lankan governmental websites displaying relevant statistics/reports. Keywords used to conduct searches included, but were not limited to: &quot;Sri Lanka mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka civil war trauma&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka suicide&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka mental health ordinances&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka religion and mental health&quot;, &quot;Sri Lanka public mental healthcare&quot;, and &quot;Sri Lanka poverty/economic crisis mental health impact.&quot; Studies that were included were relevant to the topic (Sri Lanka, South Asian mental health law, suicide, public mental health, conflict/disaster trauma, or cultural/religious practice), had full text available, and were in the English language. Non-peer-reviewed sources were primarily used to explain historical claims or contextualize non-clinical claims. ''[include date of final search when needed]'' 

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

Records attest to the care of the mentally ill through established hospitals in the island since the 4th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; Prior to the incarceration of the mentally ill by the European colonizing forces, the mentally ill were regarded as ''Pissowetitch'', or people who had &quot;the spirit of the Gods within him&quot; and &quot;whatsoever he pronounceth, is looked upon as spoken by God himself, and the people will speak to him, as if it were the very person of God&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/14346/14346-h/14346-h.htm|title=An Historical Relation Of the Island Ceylon, in the East-Indies: Together, With an Account of the Detaining in Captivity the Author and divers other Englishmen now Living there, and of the Author’s Miraculous Escape.|last=Knox|first=Robert|website=www.gutenberg.org|language=en-us|access-date=2026-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With this religious understanding, Lucien de Alwis reasoned that the mentally ill in Sri Lanka were &quot;placed... at a higher social status than the mentally ill in the Western world&quot;, with this notion correlating with the unsurprising absence of evidence in there being a &quot;large scale segregation of mentally ill from society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;. 

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western mode by the British&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally ill and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive legislation on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally ill, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, marginally alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preceding [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of significant renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]] were utilized&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit with over 100 psychiatrists all throughout the 22 districts&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.   

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was exacerbated by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The LTTE conducted decades of massacres, assassinations of political figures, and suicide bombings to achieve ''[[w:Tamil_Eelam|Tamil Eelam]],'' leading to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians evacuating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns initiated by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009).]]
Accusations of war crimes have been made against [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]]&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report alleged that the Sri Lankan government considered the native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to shellings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Vanni population also faced recruitment campaigns by the LTTE, where recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, were utilized for war efforts.  

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were poorl&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] commentated that measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions].&quot; Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Anti-Muslim sentiment was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature on the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health is limited and further research should be conducted.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced significant inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunities for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values are encouraged to be emphasized across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against groups criticized for promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media depictions of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been officially approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should ideally move beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>African Arthropods/Pompilidae of South Africa</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <comment>/* Pompilidae of South Africa */</comment>
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      <text bytes="9965" sha1="ktaqyfiz71v9w7wjzlu1spr8t5zmtla" xml:space="preserve">= Pompilidae of South Africa =
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp
Pompilidae_2019_05_01_2835.jpg|''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
Pompilidae 2019 05 28 0247.jpg|''Auplopus spilocephalus''
Pompilidae_inaturalist_123577538.jpg
File:Spider-hunting_Wasp_(Hemipepsis_sp.)_(13914041481).jpg
Spider wasp on Buffalo-Thorn (Ziziphus mucronata) flowers (52737297604).jpg|''Hemipepsis sericeipennis''
Www.inaturalist.org 258649905 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis capensis''
Pompilidae iN 144781033 04.jpg|Female ''Spuridiophorus inermis''
Pompilidae inaturalist 43562470.jpg|Possibly ''Anoplius viaticus''
Homonotus inaturalist 368570185 08.jpg|''Homonotus'' cf. ''aegyptiacus''
&lt;/gallery&gt;
South Africa has a remarkable diversity of [[w:Spider-hunting wasp|spider-hunting wasps]]. This an attempt to explore that diversity through the study of photographs (mainly those submitted to iNaturalist) and the scientific literature (mainly the papers of [[w:George Arnold (entomologist)|George Arnold]]). However, the identification of Pompilidae from photographs, even to subfamily level, is difficult. This is because their identification relies, to a large extent, on features that are seldom visible in photographs. Arnold&lt;ref name=Arnold1932p286&gt;Arnold, G. 1932. The Psammocharidae of the Ethiopian region. Part I. Subfamily Pepsinae. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 14: 286-288. [https://journals.co.za/doi/epdf/10.10520/AJA00411752_630 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt; highlights the characters used to classify pompilid wasps; many, however are of little use when attempting to identify these wasps from photographs. In order of decreasing value in photographs, they are:
*'''Colour''': Arnold (1932, p.286) stated that, for most pompilid genera, “the colour pattern is fairly stable, but owing to the existence of several [[w:Müllerian mimicry|Müllerian mimicry]] associations colour in this family provides numerous pitfalls for the unwary student. Judging by colour alone, the casual observer would not distinguish between three such very different species as ''Hemipepsis capensis'', ''Cyphononyx decipiens'' and ''Psammochares ignitus'' (''Tachypompilus ignitus'').” Arnold indicates that the colour pattern in ''Hemipepsis'' is not particularly stable, and below is an indication of  different species that have similar colour patterns to most of the ''Hemipepsis'' species found in South Africa. This shows that the identification of a ''Hemipepsis'' species should not be based on colour pattern alone. This holds for almost all species in the family;
*'''Wing veins''': Useful for the separation of subfamilies and genera, but not for species (due to variation between individuals of each species);
*'''Tibiae of the hind legs''': Important for the identification of the subfamily Pompilinae, details are often visible in photographs;
*'''Structure of the head''': The relative sizes of different features of the antennae and head are important for the identification of many species, but unfortunately usefulness depends on the angle of the wasp relative to the camera. 
*'''Structure of the clypeus''': A key feature for the identification of many species, but unfortunately the important features are not visible on most photographs;
*'''Structure of the thorax''': The key features are often hidden below the wings, especially features of the epinotum (propodeum);
*'''Structure of the abdomen''': The key features are often hidden below the wings, or on the underside;
*'''Sculpture''': Key features of the surface sculpture of the integument (hard parts of the exoskeleton) are often hidden below wings or hairs (pilosity or setae);
*'''Claws at the end of the legs''': A key feature for the identification of many genera, but unfortunately the important features are not visible on most photographs and require fairly high magnification;
*'''Structure of the genitalia and seventh sternite of the abdomen''': Seldom useful for identification from photographs, often requiring dissection and a microscope.

South African species of Pompilidae can be grouped based on fore-wing and leg colour. The number of species in each group highlights the need to consider many features other than colour. 

== Species with the basal three-fifths of the fore-wings dark, but flavo-hyaline for the apical two-fifths ==
The basal three-fifths of the fore wing are dark with a bronzy purple lustre, the rest of the fore wings are flavo-hyaline (the extreme apical margin of the fore wing is slightly darker).

*''Java caroliwaterhousei'' (Cameron, 1910); described in Arnold, 1932, p.309 as ''Cyphononyx basalis'' (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe)
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot;&gt;
Java Kenya.jpg|''Java caroliwaterhousei''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Species with fore-wings predominantly yellowish (flavo-hyaline), but with dark, blackish colours (fuscous) near the apex of the wing, and also at the base of the wing == 
For details see: [[African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with yellow wings tipped black]]
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot;&gt;
H.capensis annotated wing inaturalist 258649905.jpg|''Hemipepsis capensis''; wing detail
Www.inaturalist.org 258649905 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis capensis''
Spider_wasp_on_Buffalo-Thorn_(Ziziphus_mucronata)_flowers_(52737297604).jpg|''Hemipepsis sericeipennis''
Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg|''Hemipepsis hilaris''
Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx decipiens''
Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx decipiens''
Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 01.jpg|''Tachypompilus ignitus''
Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg|''Tachypompilus ignitus''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

*''Hemipepsis capensis'' (Fab, 1781); described in Arnold, 1932, p.328 (South Africa [Cape and Free State])
*''Hemipepsis sericeipennis'' Bingham, 1902; described in Arnold, 1932, p.329 (South Africa [Lowveld], Zimbabwe)
*''Hemipepsis hilaris'' (Smith, 1879); described in Arnold, 1932, p.326 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Cyphononyx decipiens'' (Smith, 1855); described in Arnold, 1932, p.312-313 (South Africa)
*''Priocnemis annectens'' Arnold, 1932, p.380 
*''Priocnemis algoensis'' Arnold, 1932, p.385
*''Priocnemis longipes'' Arnold, 1932, p.383
*''Priocnemis braunsii'' Arnold, 1932, p.381
*''Cryptocheilus impressiceps'' Arnold, 1932, p.376 (Malawi, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Cryptocheilus swierstrae'' Arnold, 1932, p.377 (South Africa [Waterberg, KZN, Eastern Cape])
*''Ctenocerus ramosus'' (Smith, 1865); described as ''Clavelia ramosa'' in Arnold, 1932, p.52-54; photos in Shimizu, 2022, p.107 (South Africa)
*''Batozonellus capensis'' (Dahlbom, 1843); descr. Arnold, 1937, p.6 (East Africa, Ethiopia to South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Episyron vindex'' Smith, 1879; descr. Arnold, 1936, p.454 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, '''South Africa''')
*''Tachypompilus ignitus'' (Smith, 1855); described in Arnold, 1936, p.107 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Psammoderes major'' Haupt, 1929; descr. Arnold, 1935, p.433 (South Africa)
*''Cordyloscelis flavipennis'' Arnold, 1935, p.424 (South Africa [KZN])
&lt;br&gt;

== Species that have fore-wings with dark, blackish colours (fuscous) ==

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot;&gt;
Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|''Cyphononyx obscurus''
Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|''Hemipepsis vindex''
Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|''Cyphononyx optimus''
Pompilidae 2019 05 28 0247.jpg|''Auplopus spilocephalus''


&lt;/gallery&gt;


=== Wings fuscous, antennae, body and legs black === 

Batozonellus fuliginosus	https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/519830-Batozonellus-fuliginosus

Hemipepsis braunsi		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668875-Hemipepsis-braunsi

Hemipepsis vespertilio 	https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668886-Hemipepsis-vespertilio

Hemipepsis vindex		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668887-Hemipepsis-vindex

Java atropos			https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/701743-Java-atropos

Cyphononyx obscurus 	https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/660895-Cyphononyx-obscurus


=== Wings fuscous, antennae black, face very dark reddish brown, rest of body and legs black === 

Hemipepsis braunsi		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668875-Hemipepsis-braunsi


=== Wings fuscous, antennae, body, and legs black, except some segments of the abdomen with reddish colours ===

Anoplius viaticus		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/461636-Anoplius-viaticus


=== Wings fuscous, antennae, body, and legs black, except hind femora and tibiae ferruginous ===
Paracyphononyx ruficrus	https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/681304-Paracyphononyx-ruficrus

Paracyphononyx zonatus	https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/681305-Paracyphononyx-zonatus


=== Wings fuscous, antennae black, body black, ferruginous to dark red colours on all or some legs ===
Cyphononyx optimus		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/568743-Cyphononyx-optimus


=== Wings fuscous, antennae black, head and pronotum ferruginous, abdomen black, legs black ===

Paraferreola melanostoma	https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/681363-Paraferreola-melanostoma

Schistonyx perezi		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/1426058-Schistonyx-perezi


=== Wings fuscous, antennae ferruginous, body black, and all or some legs ferruginous ===

Hemipepsis dedjas    		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668879-Hemipepsis-dedjas


=== Wings fuscous, antennae ferruginous, ferruginous to dark red colours on the head, thorax, and all or some legs ===

Auplopus enodans		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/652199-Auplopus-enodans

Auplopus spilocephala	https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/685924-Pseudagenia-spilocephala

Hemipepsis glabrata		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/1639500-Hemipepsis-glabrata

Hemipepsis tamisieri		https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/483712-Hemipepsis-tamisieri

==References==

[[Category:South Africa]]

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>User talk:Basicsandbeyond</title>
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      <comment>Reset talk page with [[:w:simple:User:DannyS712/Reset talk|reset talk]] (version 1.1)</comment>
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    <title>African Arthropods/Pompilidae of SA with dark, blackish wings</title>
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      <comment>/* Wings fuscous, antennae ferruginous, ferruginous to dark red colours on the head, thorax, and all or some legs */</comment>
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      <text bytes="2757" sha1="9tlfw6hk0yfbz927dd8kza4cder36ax" xml:space="preserve">South African Pompilidae with fuscous wings may have all body parts black, but many have ferruginous, reddish or yellowish colours on the antennae, legs, head, thorax or abdomen.

=== Wings fuscous, antennae, body and legs black === 
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/519830-Batozonellus-fuliginosus Batozonellus fuliginosus]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668875-Hemipepsis-braunsi Hemipepsis braunsi]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668886-Hemipepsis-vespertilio Hemipepsis vespertilio]		
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668887-Hemipepsis-vindex	Hemipepsis vindex]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/701743-Java-atropos Java atropos]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/660895-Cyphononyx-obscurus Cyphononyx obscurus]

=== Wings fuscous, antennae black, face very dark reddish brown, rest of body and legs black === 
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668875-Hemipepsis-braunsi Hemipepsis braunsi]

=== Wings fuscous, antennae, body, and legs black, except some segments of the abdomen with reddish colours ===
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/461636-Anoplius-viaticus Anoplius viaticus]

=== Wings fuscous, antennae, body, and legs black, except hind femora and tibiae ferruginous ===
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/681304-Paracyphononyx-ruficrus Paracyphononyx ruficrus]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/681305-Paracyphononyx-zonatus Paracyphononyx zonatus]

=== Wings fuscous, antennae black, body black, ferruginous to dark red colours on all or some legs ===
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/568743-Cyphononyx-optimus Cyphononyx optimus]

=== Wings fuscous, antennae black, head and pronotum ferruginous, abdomen black, legs black ===
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/681363-Paraferreola-melanostoma Paraferreola melanostoma] Description in Arnold, 1935, p.439.&lt;ref name=Arnold1935&gt;Arnold, G. 1935. The Psammocharidae of the Ethiopian region. Part IV. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 15: 439.&lt;/ref&gt;
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/1426058-Schistonyx-perezi Schistonyx perezi]

=== Wings fuscous, antennae ferruginous, body black, and all or some legs ferruginous ===
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668879-Hemipepsis-dedjas Hemipepsis dedjas]

=== Wings fuscous, antennae ferruginous, ferruginous to dark red colours on the head, thorax, and all or some legs ===
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/652199-Auplopus-enodans Auplopus enodans]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/685924-Pseudagenia-spilocephala Auplopus spilocephala]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/1639500-Hemipepsis-glabrata Hemipepsis glabrata]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/483712-Hemipepsis-tamisieri Hemipepsis tamisieri]
*[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/668883-Hemipepsis-iodoptera Hemipepsis iodoptera]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>Athena problem</title>
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      <comment>/* Solve the problem */</comment>
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'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both &quot;numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; and &quot;length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist): (''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/(''b''−1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1, (''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/2 (for odd ''b''), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b''), ((''b''−2)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/(''b''−1), 2×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1, 2×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2, ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2, (''b''−1)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1, (''b''−1)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+(''b''−1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−(''b''−1)):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
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'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both &quot;numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; and &quot;length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist): (''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1), (''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2), ((''b''−2)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2), 2×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 (''n'' ≥ 1), 2×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2 (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2 (''n'' ≥ 2), (''b''−1)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 (''n'' ≥ 1), (''b''−1)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2)):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2818078</id>
      <parentid>2818077</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T14:51:30Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="52534" sha1="s6gqnfso0jhyhq1x7npjmtimtwnma89" xml:space="preserve">{{mathematics}}
'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both &quot;numbers of primes in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; and &quot;length of the largest prime in the set of the Athena problem in base ''b''&quot; are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''&lt;sup&gt;''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)&lt;/sup&gt;), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist): (''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1), (''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b'') (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2), ((''b''−2)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2), 2×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 (''n'' ≥ 1), 2×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2 (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2 (''n'' ≥ 2), (''b''−1)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 (''n'' ≥ 1), (''b''−1)×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1), ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2)):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
      <sha1>s6gqnfso0jhyhq1x7npjmtimtwnma89</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy</title>
    <ns>5</ns>
    <id>330057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818098</id>
      <parentid>2818042</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T23:45:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* wording */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2818098</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4957" sha1="t2yjbn2ox8pd9i2h9mlbphwynkhuzjv" xml:space="preserve">== Notice to colloquium ==

What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: A notice would be posted at the inactive SSM's user talk page, and a separate notification at the village pump listing the inactive support staff member(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:46, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::And the reasoning behind why whole community should know, there is inactive staff? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
::: This is standard practice as the stewards have done this similar procedure per [[m:Admin activity review]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:06, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

== Inactive curator template ==

Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: I'm not sure what you are trying to explain. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:47, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::I am saying that if the inactive period is changed, the {{tl|Inactive curator}} template text ''&quot;no edits or no logged actions for 2 years&quot;'' should be changed to the appropriate one. This is just a notice, not to forget to do so. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:10, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I see, thank you for explaining. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:05, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

== Communication with the SSM and deadlines ==

A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of &quot;peace&quot;.

I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now.

Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::Well, why not. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:25, 25 June 2026 (UTC)

== wording ==

This may sound pendantic... the prhase &quot;are considered inactive if they have made no edits and logged actions within one year.&quot; Does this mean that any edit [[w:Logical conjunction|AND]] a log action are required in one year? Does it mean that either one is required in that time frame, but not necessarily both? [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
: This means an edit and a logged action, together. I am not sure what is the point of desysopping a custodian who makes edits but otherwise does not use their permission(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:45, 10 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Sabbier</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2818082</id>
      <parentid>2818024</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T17:00:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sabbier</username>
        <id>3098112</id>
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      <text bytes="61892" sha1="ovrkm9rl9s321x3cii1qkyv6mj3kb9p" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add course objectives to Introduction
# Change fractions to symbols in the recipe section

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]


In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert of a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glasses
# Taxonomy of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# All the basic recipes
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=1|width=50}}
Vodka
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=2|width=50}}
Gin
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
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Rum
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=4|width=50}}
Tequila
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
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Whiskey
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Other/Mixed
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=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

= Hospitality =

# Steps of Service
# Serving Drinks to People
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality</text>
      <sha1>ovrkm9rl9s321x3cii1qkyv6mj3kb9p</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2818087</id>
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      <text bytes="63027" sha1="qqbrwtf8i52kp4q4g04fbd963jqgm1x" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add course objectives to Introduction
# Change fractions to symbols in the recipe section

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=1|width=50}}
Vodka
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=2|width=50}}
Gin
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=3|width=50}}
Rum
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=4|width=50}}
Tequila
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=5|width=50}}
Whiskey
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=11|width=50}}
Other/Mixed
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Negroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The four sections in this lesson are:
# Steps of Service
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality

== Steps of Service ==</text>
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      <text bytes="66693" sha1="l4009hofqwpcwpxzpfu4j5t28fq0ltx" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add course objectives to Introduction
# Change fractions to symbols in the recipe section

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring wine into a decanter.jpg|left|thumb|Pouring wine]]

==== Serving Still Wine ====

# Get a 

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=1|width=50}}
Vodka
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=2|width=50}}
Gin
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=3|width=50}}
Rum
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=4|width=50}}
Tequila
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=5|width=50}}
Whiskey
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=11|width=50}}
Other/Mixed
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

1/2 oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 1/2 oz Gin

1/2 oz Lime Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rye Whiskey

1/2 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

1/2 oz Orange Curaçao

1/2 oz Orgeat

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 1/2 oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 1/2 oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

1/2 oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

1/2 Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
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'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

1/2 oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

1/2 oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

1/2 oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The sections in this lesson are:
# What is Hospitality?
# Steps of Service
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality

== What is Hospitality? ==
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

'''If you want to be there, so will they.''' People can immediately tell if you want to be there or not. If your vibes a drag, people won't want to talk to you. There's the catch: ''people need to talk to you to get drinks''. If people don't want to talk to you, they'll leave and they won't come back. If you can find time to smile at people while behind the bar, you'll find your job is actually easier.

== Steps of Service ==
Service and hospitality are related, but separate ideas. Service is the mechanics of bartending: mixing drinks, closing tabs, cleaning and clearing. Hospitality is how you make your patrons feel. Keeping your service up will go a long ways towards making an environment hospitable. If the drink service is slow and the bar is messy, patrons are not gonna feel good. That's an example of service impacting hospitality.

When a patron comes to a bar, there's steps to how the they should be served that blend hospitality and service technique. Let's go over the steps of providing good service.

# &lt;u&gt;Greet the Patron&lt;/u&gt; - Make eye contact with each person as they enter or approach your bar. Try to keep a relaxed, or at least welcoming posture. Greet them warmly, making it clear that you see them and that you're happy they're here. Offer then a menu and pour them a water if your bar allows.
# &lt;u&gt;Take the Order&lt;/u&gt; - Once they've had a moment, or if they look immediately ready, ask what they would like to order or if they have any questions. Repeat what they've order back to them so that they can let you know if you misheard.
# &lt;u&gt;Mix the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Maybe they've ordered beer or wine that just need to be poured, or maybe they've ordered several shaken drinks. Now's the time to make them. While you're making drinks, be sure to look up at the bar and greet people as they arrive.
# &lt;u&gt;Drop the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Bring finished drinks to guests as soon as they're finished. Mixed drinks have a short shelf life, and should be  delivered promptly.
# &lt;u&gt;Check in&lt;/u&gt; - Give them a few moments to taste their drinks. Check in with an open ended question. &quot;How is everything?&quot; Many people won't tell you if they don't like the drink, so feel free to try to make them comfortable with giving honest feedback. You can always remake a drink!
# &lt;u&gt;Clear and Ask&lt;/u&gt; - When they're done with their drinks, clear any unneeded dishes and give the bar a wipe (avoiding pushing any crumbs onto your patron's lap). Then ask if they'd like another round. It's best to keep this question open and neutral. We don't need to push people to get another drink. A simple, &quot;What's next?&quot; gives patrons the floor to tell you what they need.
# &lt;u&gt;Close Out&lt;/u&gt; - When they've asked for a check, close out and bring the check quickly. The dead time when a patron wants to leave but can't yet is a vibe killer. You should prioritize closing them out and letting them leave quickly. When you drop the check, make eye contact, smile and thank them for coming.</text>
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      <text bytes="66671" sha1="d30xz1a6c4ri4bs4w4ckc4inx2wkjt3" xml:space="preserve">½Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add course objectives to Introduction
# Change fractions to symbols in the recipe section

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring wine into a decanter.jpg|left|thumb|Pouring wine]]

==== Serving Still Wine ====

# Get a 

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=1|width=50}}
Vodka
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Gin
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Rum
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Tequila
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Whiskey
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Other/Mixed
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=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

½ oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

½ oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 ½ oz Gin

½ oz Lime Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rye Whiskey

½ oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

½ oz Orange Curaçao

½ oz Orgeat

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 ½ oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

½ Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Negroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

½ oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The sections in this lesson are:
# What is Hospitality?
# Steps of Service
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality

== What is Hospitality? ==
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

'''If you want to be there, so will they.''' People can immediately tell if you want to be there or not. If your vibes a drag, people won't want to talk to you. There's the catch: ''people need to talk to you to get drinks''. If people don't want to talk to you, they'll leave and they won't come back. If you can find time to smile at people while behind the bar, you'll find your job is actually easier.

== Steps of Service ==
Service and hospitality are related, but separate ideas. Service is the mechanics of bartending: mixing drinks, closing tabs, cleaning and clearing. Hospitality is how you make your patrons feel. Keeping your service up will go a long ways towards making an environment hospitable. If the drink service is slow and the bar is messy, patrons are not gonna feel good. That's an example of service impacting hospitality.

When a patron comes to a bar, there's steps to how the they should be served that blend hospitality and service technique. Let's go over the steps of providing good service.

# &lt;u&gt;Greet the Patron&lt;/u&gt; - Make eye contact with each person as they enter or approach your bar. Try to keep a relaxed, or at least welcoming posture. Greet them warmly, making it clear that you see them and that you're happy they're here. Offer then a menu and pour them a water if your bar allows.
# &lt;u&gt;Take the Order&lt;/u&gt; - Once they've had a moment, or if they look immediately ready, ask what they would like to order or if they have any questions. Repeat what they've order back to them so that they can let you know if you misheard.
# &lt;u&gt;Mix the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Maybe they've ordered beer or wine that just need to be poured, or maybe they've ordered several shaken drinks. Now's the time to make them. While you're making drinks, be sure to look up at the bar and greet people as they arrive.
# &lt;u&gt;Drop the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Bring finished drinks to guests as soon as they're finished. Mixed drinks have a short shelf life, and should be  delivered promptly.
# &lt;u&gt;Check in&lt;/u&gt; - Give them a few moments to taste their drinks. Check in with an open ended question. &quot;How is everything?&quot; Many people won't tell you if they don't like the drink, so feel free to try to make them comfortable with giving honest feedback. You can always remake a drink!
# &lt;u&gt;Clear and Ask&lt;/u&gt; - When they're done with their drinks, clear any unneeded dishes and give the bar a wipe (avoiding pushing any crumbs onto your patron's lap). Then ask if they'd like another round. It's best to keep this question open and neutral. We don't need to push people to get another drink. A simple, &quot;What's next?&quot; gives patrons the floor to tell you what they need.
# &lt;u&gt;Close Out&lt;/u&gt; - When they've asked for a check, close out and bring the check quickly. The dead time when a patron wants to leave but can't yet is a vibe killer. You should prioritize closing them out and letting them leave quickly. When you drop the check, make eye contact, smile and thank them for coming.</text>
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      <text bytes="68448" sha1="r4cszx7w5io8qgandakcjbyr59e1hkj" xml:space="preserve">½Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add course objectives to Introduction
# Change fractions to symbols in the recipe section

==== Course Outline ====

# What is bartending?/Bartending basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol 
### Spirits portal
## Tools and their uses
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Preparation
## Glasses
## All the basic recipes
## Taxonomy of cocktails
# Hospitality
## Steps of Service
## Serving Drinks to People
## Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
## Internal Hospitality
# Industry
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools and Their Uses
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring wine into a decanter.jpg|left|thumb|Pouring wine|296x296px]]

==== Uncorking Still Wine ====

# Find a wine key with a double-hinge.
# Using the knife, cut the foil around the lip of the bottle. Using the bottle opener end of the key, peel back to foil to expose the cork.
# Insert the corkscrew into the center of the cork by twisting until most of the screw is embedded.
# Place the first hinge on the lip of the bottle, and use it as leverage to lift up on the wine key (lifting the cork partially).
# Place the second hinge of the lip of the bottle, and completely remove the cork.
'''Serving Beer'''

# Whether pouring from a bottle or a tap, tilt the glass 45° and pour the beer down the side of glass to prevent too much foam, or &quot;head&quot;, from developing.
# At the end of the pour, straighten the glass to allow for some head to form.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
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Vodka
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Gin
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Rum
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Tequila
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Whiskey
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Other/Mixed
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=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

½ oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
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'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
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'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
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'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

½ oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 ½ oz Gin

½ oz Lime Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rye Whiskey

½ oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

½ oz Orange Curaçao

½ oz Orgeat

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 ½ oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

½ Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

½ oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The sections in this lesson are:
# What is Hospitality?
# Steps of Service
# Tasting Drinks/Developing Taste
# Internal Hospitality

== What is Hospitality? ==
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

'''If you want to be there, so will they.''' People can immediately tell if you want to be there or not. If your vibes a drag, people won't want to talk to you. There's the catch: ''people need to talk to you to get drinks''. If people don't want to talk to you, they'll leave and they won't come back. If you can find time to smile at people while behind the bar, you'll find your job is actually easier.

== Steps of Service ==
Service and hospitality are related, but separate ideas. Service is the mechanics of bartending: mixing drinks, closing tabs, cleaning and clearing. Hospitality is how you make your patrons feel. Keeping your service up will go a long ways towards making an environment hospitable. If the drink service is slow and the bar is messy, patrons are not gonna feel good. That's an example of service impacting hospitality.

When a patron comes to a bar, there's steps to how the they should be served that blend hospitality and service technique. Let's go over the steps of providing good service.

# &lt;u&gt;Greet the Patron&lt;/u&gt; - Make eye contact with each person as they enter or approach your bar. Try to keep a relaxed, or at least welcoming posture. Greet them warmly, making it clear that you see them and that you're happy they're here. Offer then a menu and pour them a water if your bar allows.
# &lt;u&gt;Take the Order&lt;/u&gt; - Once they've had a moment, or if they look immediately ready, ask what they would like to order or if they have any questions. Repeat what they've order back to them so that they can let you know if you misheard.
# &lt;u&gt;Mix the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Maybe they've ordered beer or wine that just need to be poured, or maybe they've ordered several shaken drinks. Now's the time to make them. While you're making drinks, be sure to look up at the bar and greet people as they arrive.
# &lt;u&gt;Drop the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Bring finished drinks to guests as soon as they're finished. Mixed drinks have a short shelf life, and should be  delivered promptly.
# &lt;u&gt;Check in&lt;/u&gt; - Give them a few moments to taste their drinks. Check in with an open ended question. &quot;How is everything?&quot; Many people won't tell you if they don't like the drink, so feel free to try to make them comfortable with giving honest feedback. You can always remake a drink!
# &lt;u&gt;Clear and Ask&lt;/u&gt; - When they're done with their drinks, clear any unneeded dishes and give the bar a wipe (avoiding pushing any crumbs onto your patron's lap). Then ask if they'd like another round. It's best to keep this question open and neutral. We don't need to push people to get another drink. A simple, &quot;What's next?&quot; gives patrons the floor to tell you what they need.
# &lt;u&gt;Close Out&lt;/u&gt; - When they've asked for a check, close out and bring the check quickly. The dead time when a patron wants to leave but can't yet is a vibe killer. You should prioritize closing them out and letting them leave quickly. When you drop the check, make eye contact, smile and thank them for coming.

== Internal Hospitality ==
Hospitality isn't something reserved for the patrons of your bar. Hospitality is something that should be shown to your teammates and everyone you work with. Think of it like this: &lt;blockquote&gt;If you're willing to give 100% attention, kindness and respect to complete strangers who walk up to your bar, shouldn't you be willing to give even more to the people you work with and see every day?&lt;/blockquote&gt;The people you work with at your bar will be the most valuable and important resource you have, making them feel good when they're around you is equally if not more important than patron hospitality. They will give you invaluable tips, unlock opportunities you've never imagined, and maybe become lifelong friends, but only if you treat them with the same, or more, hospitality you give to bar patrons.

One step further, hospitality is something you can show yourself. If we return to the definition of hospitality ''as an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity'', you can</text>
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      <text bytes="68699" sha1="4svnd14ywd155txmdedl1czfxk9zn0n" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Things Yet to Do ====

# Look at structures of other wiki courses
## School vs Course vs Lesson vs Activity?
## Multiple pages per course? Multiple pages per lesson?
# Gather Wikimedia photos for use

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Add course objectives to Introduction
# Change fractions to symbols in the recipe section

==== Course Outline ====

# Bartending Basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol
## Tools of Bartending
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Glassware
## Typology of Cocktails
## Preparation and Skills
## Essential Cocktails
# Hospitality
## What is Hospitality?
## Steps of Service
## Internal Hospitality
## Developing Taste
# Industry 
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry (Under Construction)

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools of Bartending
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring wine into a decanter.jpg|left|thumb|Pouring wine|296x296px]]

==== Uncorking Still Wine ====

# Find a wine key with a double-hinge.
# Using the knife, cut the foil around the lip of the bottle. Using the bottle opener end of the key, peel back to foil to expose the cork.
# Insert the corkscrew into the center of the cork by twisting until most of the screw is embedded.
# Place the first hinge on the lip of the bottle, and use it as leverage to lift up on the wine key (lifting the cork partially).
# Place the second hinge of the lip of the bottle, and completely remove the cork.
'''Serving Beer'''

# Whether pouring from a bottle or a tap, tilt the glass 45° and pour the beer down the side of glass to prevent too much foam, or &quot;head&quot;, from developing.
# At the end of the pour, straighten the glass to allow for some head to form.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=1|width=50}}
Vodka
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=2|width=50}}
Gin
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=3|width=50}}
Rum
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=4|width=50}}
Tequila
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=5|width=50}}
Whiskey
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=11|width=50}}
Other/Mixed
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

½ oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

½ oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 ½ oz Gin

½ oz Lime Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rye Whiskey

½ oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

½ oz Orange Curaçao

½ oz Orgeat

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 ½ oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

½ Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
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'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

½ oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The sections in this lesson are:
# What is Hospitality?
# Steps of Service
# Internal Hospitality
# Developing Taste

== What is Hospitality? ==
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

'''If you want to be there, so will they.''' People can immediately tell if you want to be there or not. If your vibes a drag, people won't want to talk to you. There's the catch: ''people need to talk to you to get drinks''. If people don't want to talk to you, they'll leave and they won't come back. If you can find time to smile at people while behind the bar, you'll find your job is actually easier.

== Steps of Service ==
Service and hospitality are related, but separate ideas. Service is the mechanics of bartending: mixing drinks, closing tabs, cleaning and clearing. Hospitality is how you make your patrons feel. Keeping your service up will go a long ways towards making an environment hospitable. If the drink service is slow and the bar is messy, patrons are not gonna feel good. That's an example of service impacting hospitality.

When a patron comes to a bar, there's steps to how the they should be served that blend hospitality and service technique. Let's go over the steps of providing good service.

# &lt;u&gt;Greet the Patron&lt;/u&gt; - Make eye contact with each person as they enter or approach your bar. Try to keep a relaxed, or at least welcoming posture. Greet them warmly, making it clear that you see them and that you're happy they're here. Offer then a menu and pour them a water if your bar allows.
# &lt;u&gt;Take the Order&lt;/u&gt; - Once they've had a moment, or if they look immediately ready, ask what they would like to order or if they have any questions. Repeat what they've order back to them so that they can let you know if you misheard.
# &lt;u&gt;Mix the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Maybe they've ordered beer or wine that just need to be poured, or maybe they've ordered several shaken drinks. Now's the time to make them. While you're making drinks, be sure to look up at the bar and greet people as they arrive.
# &lt;u&gt;Drop the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Bring finished drinks to guests as soon as they're finished. Mixed drinks have a short shelf life, and should be  delivered promptly.
# &lt;u&gt;Check in&lt;/u&gt; - Give them a few moments to taste their drinks. Check in with an open ended question. &quot;How is everything?&quot; Many people won't tell you if they don't like the drink, so feel free to try to make them comfortable with giving honest feedback. You can always remake a drink!
# &lt;u&gt;Clear and Ask&lt;/u&gt; - When they're done with their drinks, clear any unneeded dishes and give the bar a wipe (avoiding pushing any crumbs onto your patron's lap). Then ask if they'd like another round. It's best to keep this question open and neutral. We don't need to push people to get another drink. A simple, &quot;What's next?&quot; gives patrons the floor to tell you what they need.
# &lt;u&gt;Close Out&lt;/u&gt; - When they've asked for a check, close out and bring the check quickly. The dead time when a patron wants to leave but can't yet is a vibe killer. You should prioritize closing them out and letting them leave quickly. When you drop the check, make eye contact, smile and thank them for coming.

== Internal Hospitality ==
Hospitality isn't something reserved for the patrons of your bar. Hospitality is something that should be shown to your teammates and everyone you work with. Think of it like this: &lt;blockquote&gt;If you're willing to give 100% attention, kindness and respect to complete strangers who walk up to your bar, shouldn't you be willing to give even more to the people you work with and see every day?&lt;/blockquote&gt;The people you work with at your bar will be the most valuable and important resource you have, making them feel good when they're around you is equally if not more important than patron hospitality. They will give you invaluable tips, unlock opportunities you've never imagined, and maybe become lifelong friends, but only if you treat them with the same, or more, hospitality you give to bar patrons.

One step further, hospitality is something you can show yourself. If we return to the definition of hospitality ''as an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity'', you can absolutely show hospitality to yourself. Respect your needs, be generous with time away from work and be open to making mistakes and learning. You'll find that bartending will be more pleasurable and that positive feeling will make your job even easier.

== Developing Taste ==
Oftentimes people</text>
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      <text bytes="69809" sha1="1bt0i57ylv1zrlwemtzfk3313ep3l05" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Finish/Build up the Hospitality Lesson
# Add an Advanced Bartending lesson with more recipes/mixology/significant bartenders/freepouring?

==== Course Outline ====

# Bartending Basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol
## Tools of Bartending
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Glassware
## Typology of Cocktails
## Preparation and Skills
## Essential Cocktails
# Hospitality
## What is Hospitality?
## Steps of Service
## Internal Hospitality
## Developing Taste
# Industry 
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry (Under Construction)

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools of Bartending
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring wine into a decanter.jpg|left|thumb|Pouring wine|296x296px]]

==== Uncorking Still Wine ====

# Find a wine key with a double-hinge.
# Using the knife, cut the foil around the lip of the bottle. Using the bottle opener end of the key, peel back to foil to expose the cork.
# Insert the corkscrew into the center of the cork by twisting until most of the screw is embedded.
# Place the first hinge on the lip of the bottle, and use it as leverage to lift up on the wine key (lifting the cork partially).
# Place the second hinge of the lip of the bottle, and completely remove the cork.
'''Serving Beer'''

# Whether pouring from a bottle or a tap, tilt the glass 45° and pour the beer down the side of glass to prevent too much foam, or &quot;head&quot;, from developing.
# At the end of the pour, straighten the glass to allow for some head to form.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
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Vodka
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Gin
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Rum
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Tequila
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Whiskey
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Other/Mixed
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=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

½ oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
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'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

½ oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 ½ oz Gin

½ oz Lime Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rye Whiskey

½ oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

½ oz Orange Curaçao

½ oz Orgeat

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 ½ oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

½ Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

½ oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The sections in this lesson are:
# What is Hospitality?
# Steps of Service
# Internal Hospitality
# Developing Taste

== What is Hospitality? ==
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

'''If you want to be there, so will they.''' People can immediately tell if you want to be there or not. If your vibes a drag, people won't want to talk to you. There's the catch: ''people need to talk to you to get drinks''. If people don't want to talk to you, they'll leave, and they won't come back. If you can find time to smile at people while behind the bar, you'll find your job is actually easier.

== Steps of Service ==
Service and hospitality are related, but separate ideas. Service is the mechanics of bartending: mixing drinks, closing tabs, cleaning and clearing. Hospitality is how you make your patrons feel. Keeping your service up will go a long ways towards making an environment hospitable. If the drink service is slow and the bar is messy, patrons are not gonna feel good. That's an example of service impacting hospitality.

When a patron comes to a bar, there's steps to how the they should be served that blend hospitality and service technique. Let's go over the steps of providing good service.

# &lt;u&gt;Greet the Patron&lt;/u&gt; - Make eye contact with each person as they enter or approach your bar. Try to keep a relaxed, or at least welcoming posture. Greet them warmly, making it clear that you see them and that you're happy they're here. Offer then a menu and pour them a water if your bar allows.
# &lt;u&gt;Take the Order&lt;/u&gt; - Once they've had a moment, or if they look immediately ready, ask what they would like to order or if they have any questions. Repeat what they've order back to them so that they can let you know if you misheard.
# &lt;u&gt;Mix the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Maybe they've ordered beer or wine that just need to be poured, or maybe they've ordered several shaken drinks. Now's the time to make them. While you're making drinks, be sure to look up at the bar and greet people as they arrive.
# &lt;u&gt;Drop the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Bring finished drinks to guests as soon as they're finished. Mixed drinks have a short shelf life, and should be  delivered promptly.
# &lt;u&gt;Check in&lt;/u&gt; - Give them a few moments to taste their drinks. Check in with an open ended question. &quot;How is everything?&quot; Many people won't tell you if they don't like the drink, so feel free to try to make them comfortable with giving honest feedback. You can always remake a drink!
# &lt;u&gt;Clear and Ask&lt;/u&gt; - When they're done with their drinks, clear any unneeded dishes and give the bar a wipe (avoiding pushing any crumbs onto your patron's lap). Then ask if they'd like another round. It's best to keep this question open and neutral. We don't need to push people to get another drink. A simple, &quot;What's next?&quot; gives patrons the floor to tell you what they need.
# &lt;u&gt;Close Out&lt;/u&gt; - When they've asked for a check, close out and bring the check quickly. The dead time when a patron wants to leave but can't yet is a vibe killer. You should prioritize closing them out and letting them leave quickly. When you drop the check, make eye contact, smile and thank them for coming.

== Internal Hospitality ==
Hospitality isn't something reserved for the patrons of your bar. Hospitality is something that should be shown to your teammates and everyone you work with. Think of it like this: &lt;blockquote&gt;If you're willing to give 100% attention, kindness and respect to complete strangers who walk up to your bar, shouldn't you be willing to give even more to the people you work with and see every day?&lt;/blockquote&gt;The people you work with at your bar will be the most valuable and important resource you have, making them feel good when they're around you is equally if not more important than patron hospitality. They will give you invaluable tips, unlock opportunities you've never imagined, and maybe become lifelong friends, but only if you treat them with the same, or more, hospitality you give to bar patrons.

One step further, hospitality is something you can show yourself. If we return to the definition of hospitality ''as an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity'', you can absolutely show hospitality to yourself. Respect your needs, be generous with time away from work and be open to making mistakes and learning. You'll find that bartending will be more pleasurable and that positive feeling will make your job even easier.

== Developing Taste ==
Oftentimes patrons of your bar will ask your opinion on drinks, the menu and even the area around the bar. It's good hospitality to be able to answer their questions to the best of your ability. Here's some tips on each of those topics.

==== Tasting Alcohol ====
Tasting alcohol, including straight spirits, is a unique experience that is often undervalued. Skilled sommeliers can detect subtle notes at different moments when drinking a wine. Something similar can be done with spirits.

''If you're reading this, this lesson is still under construction! Feel free to add, edit, or [[User:Sabbier|message me]].''</text>
      <sha1>1bt0i57ylv1zrlwemtzfk3313ep3l05</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2818097</id>
      <parentid>2818096</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T22:50:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sabbier</username>
        <id>3098112</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="70663" sha1="peey3a3psbsee64nr288tfjq5q5539t" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Finish/Build up the Hospitality Lesson
# Add an Advanced Bartending lesson with more recipes/mixology/significant bartenders/freepouring?

==== Course Outline ====

# Bartending Basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol
## Tools of Bartending
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Glassware
## Typology of Cocktails
## Preparation and Skills
## Essential Cocktails
# Hospitality
## What is Hospitality?
## Steps of Service
## Internal Hospitality
## Developing Taste
# Industry 
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry (Under Construction)

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools of Bartending
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring wine into a decanter.jpg|left|thumb|Pouring wine|296x296px]]

==== Uncorking Still Wine ====

# Find a wine key with a double-hinge.
# Using the knife, cut the foil around the lip of the bottle. Using the bottle opener end of the key, peel back to foil to expose the cork.
# Insert the corkscrew into the center of the cork by twisting until most of the screw is embedded.
# Place the first hinge on the lip of the bottle, and use it as leverage to lift up on the wine key (lifting the cork partially).
# Place the second hinge of the lip of the bottle, and completely remove the cork.
'''Serving Beer'''

# Whether pouring from a bottle or a tap, tilt the glass 45° and pour the beer down the side of glass to prevent too much foam, or &quot;head&quot;, from developing.
# At the end of the pour, straighten the glass to allow for some head to form.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
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Vodka
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Gin
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Rum
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Tequila
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Whiskey
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Other/Mixed
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=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

½ oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
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'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
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=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

½ oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 ½ oz Gin

½ oz Lime Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rye Whiskey

½ oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

½ oz Orange Curaçao

½ oz Orgeat

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 ½ oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

½ Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

½ oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The sections in this lesson are:
# What is Hospitality?
# Steps of Service
# Internal Hospitality
# Developing Taste

== What is Hospitality? ==
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

'''If you want to be there, so will they.''' People can immediately tell if you want to be there or not. If your vibes a drag, people won't want to talk to you. There's the catch: ''people need to talk to you to get drinks''. If people don't want to talk to you, they'll leave, and they won't come back. If you can find time to smile at people while behind the bar, you'll find your job is actually easier.

== Steps of Service ==
Service and hospitality are related, but separate ideas. Service is the mechanics of bartending: mixing drinks, closing tabs, cleaning and clearing. Hospitality is how you make your patrons feel. Keeping your service up will go a long ways towards making an environment hospitable. If the drink service is slow and the bar is messy, patrons are not gonna feel good. That's an example of service impacting hospitality.

When a patron comes to a bar, there's steps to how the they should be served that blend hospitality and service technique. Let's go over the steps of providing good service.

# &lt;u&gt;Greet the Patron&lt;/u&gt; - Make eye contact with each person as they enter or approach your bar. Try to keep a relaxed, or at least welcoming posture. Greet them warmly, making it clear that you see them and that you're happy they're here. Offer then a menu and pour them a water if your bar allows.
# &lt;u&gt;Take the Order&lt;/u&gt; - Once they've had a moment, or if they look immediately ready, ask what they would like to order or if they have any questions. Repeat what they've order back to them so that they can let you know if you misheard.
# &lt;u&gt;Mix the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Maybe they've ordered beer or wine that just need to be poured, or maybe they've ordered several shaken drinks. Now's the time to make them. While you're making drinks, be sure to look up at the bar and greet people as they arrive.
# &lt;u&gt;Drop the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Bring finished drinks to guests as soon as they're finished. Mixed drinks have a short shelf life, and should be  delivered promptly.
# &lt;u&gt;Check in&lt;/u&gt; - Give them a few moments to taste their drinks. Check in with an open ended question. &quot;How is everything?&quot; Many people won't tell you if they don't like the drink, so feel free to try to make them comfortable with giving honest feedback. You can always remake a drink!
# &lt;u&gt;Clear and Ask&lt;/u&gt; - When they're done with their drinks, clear any unneeded dishes and give the bar a wipe (avoiding pushing any crumbs onto your patron's lap). Then ask if they'd like another round. It's best to keep this question open and neutral. We don't need to push people to get another drink. A simple, &quot;What's next?&quot; gives patrons the floor to tell you what they need.
# &lt;u&gt;Close Out&lt;/u&gt; - When they've asked for a check, close out and bring the check quickly. The dead time when a patron wants to leave but can't yet is a vibe killer. You should prioritize closing them out and letting them leave quickly. When you drop the check, make eye contact, smile and thank them for coming.

== Internal Hospitality ==
Hospitality isn't something reserved for the patrons of your bar. Hospitality is something that should be shown to your teammates and everyone you work with. Think of it like this: &lt;blockquote&gt;If you're willing to give 100% attention, kindness and respect to complete strangers who walk up to your bar, shouldn't you be willing to give even more to the people you work with and see every day?&lt;/blockquote&gt;The people you work with at your bar will be the most valuable and important resource you have, making them feel good when they're around you is equally if not more important than patron hospitality. They will give you invaluable tips, unlock opportunities you've never imagined, and maybe become lifelong friends, but only if you treat them with the same, or more, hospitality you give to bar patrons.

One step further, hospitality is something you can show yourself. If we return to the definition of hospitality ''as an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity'', you can absolutely show hospitality to yourself. Respect your needs, be generous with time away from work and be open to making mistakes and learning. You'll find that bartending will be more pleasurable and that positive feeling will make your job even easier.

== Developing Taste ==
Oftentimes patrons of your bar will ask your opinion on drinks, the menu and even the area around the bar. It's good hospitality to be able to answer their questions to the best of your ability. Here's some tips on each of those topics.

=== Tasting Alcohol ===
Tasting alcohol, including straight spirits, is a unique experience that is often undervalued. Skilled sommeliers can detect subtle notes at different moments when drinking a wine. Something similar can be done with spirits. Just a reminder that you don't have to swallow a drink to taste it. It's common for bartenders to spit a drink out when tasting it, especially on the job.

# Smell the spirit. Don't stick your nose straight into it! Hover your nose above the spirit so that you can get a natural whiff of the aroma.
# Take a sip and swirl it around. Your mouth can hold on to tastes for quite a while, and this first swirl will clear that up.
# Take another sip, and appreciate the flavor. This is the part that takes time, patience and skill. There are several ways to break up flavors. What did you taste the second it hit your tongue? What about after spitting it out or swallowing? You can try to pick up on the biggest notes first. Is it smokey? Sour? Bitter? Then try honing in on something more subtle. Are there herbal notes? Fruity?

=== Giving Recommendations ===
''If you're reading this, this lesson is still under construction! Feel free to add, edit, or [[User:Sabbier|message me]].''</text>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Notes to Myself */</comment>
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      <text bytes="70793" sha1="7ynr6uxhlipsss23t6stroc1b61kpb1" xml:space="preserve">Hi ! I'm a librarian that occasionally edits on Wikipedia and Wikiversity.

== Things I'm working on ==
[[Creating Wikiversity Courses]]

=== Bartending Wikiversity Course ===

==== Notes to Myself ====

# Course with several lesson subpages - could use the box template to organize.
# Add more about legal obligation of bartenders (and a source for students to look up their area) under Safety
# Add a section about not taking abuse or being a punching bag under Safety
# Finish/Build up the Hospitality Lesson
# Add an Advanced Bartending lesson with more recipes/mixology/significant bartenders/freepouring?
# Change recipes to say &quot;ingredients&quot; when listing all ingredients 
# Move stirring photo in skills for mobile friendly placement

==== Course Outline ====

# Bartending Basics
## Sources of alcohol
## Types of alcohol
## Tools of Bartending
## Safety
# Mixing Drinks
## Glassware
## Typology of Cocktails
## Preparation and Skills
## Essential Cocktails
# Hospitality
## What is Hospitality?
## Steps of Service
## Internal Hospitality
## Developing Taste
# Industry 
## History of pubs/bartenders/mixologists
## Wages + tips
## Hours + Working conditions
## Unions
# Recommended Reading List
## Mr. Boston's Official Bartender's Guide - Available on Internet Archive
# References
## [[wikipedia:Pub|Public House]] page
## [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]]
## https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bartending

= Bartending for Beginners =

=== Introduction ===
Mixing drinks, talking to people, and making money: that's bartending! If you find that definition to be less-than-enough, this course will guide you through the essential skills of a bartender. This course is intended for adults of legal drinking age where they live who want to start bartending in a professional establishment either as a side gig or a career. Adults wanting to learn about bartending in general or how to mix drinks at home can also benefit from this course. No prior experience is required. By the end of the course, you should know: how to mix common drinks ordered at different types of bars and how they are related to one another; the liquors, spirits, ales, wines and other drinks used at the bar; the tools of the trade; the basics of safety as a bartender; how to create a hospitable environment for bar patrons; and details on the bartending industry, customs and history.

This course makes use of the [[wikipedia:Wikimedia_Foundation#Projects_and_initiatives|Wikimedia ecosystem]] of projects. Throughout the course, there will be links to Wikipedia pages, Wiktionary entries, and images from Wikimedia Commons. When a link is casually included in a lesson, I encourage you to browse its contents. Occasionally, clicking a link and digesting its contents will be formally assigned as part of the course.

=== Structure of the Course ===
This course is comprised of lessons which each focus on a component of bartending. It is recommended to complete them in order, as each lesson will build on the previous. The lessons can be found below:

# Bartending Basics
# Mixing Drinks
# Hospitality 
# Industry (Under Construction)

=== Course Objectives ===
By the of the course, you should be able to:

* Share information about and identify the different types of alcohol
* Identify and use the tools of a bartender to complete common techniques
* Mix the 20 essential cocktails
* Serve bar patrons safely and hospitably

=== Recommended Materials ===
Bartending is a physical practice, and theory alone is not enough to prepare yourself. There will be activities that you complete at home as part of the course. The materials required to complete these activities are:
# Boston shaker (Preferably not a Cobbler shaker or a Parisian shaker, though they may be easier to find.)
# Hawthorn Strainer
# Bar Spoon
# Jigger
#A glass for mixing, and a glass to pour drinks into (Don't worry about the style of glass, it just needs to be large enough to hold ice and 10 oz of liquid.)
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|left|thumb|Bartender with Boston Shaker]]
[[File:Cocktail-strainer.jpg|thumb|Hawthorne Strainer]]
[[File:Jigger.jpg|center|thumb|160x160px|Jigger]]
In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. Those will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks. Many of these materials can bought online or found at secondhand or thrift shops depending on your area. There may also be a specialty store near you catering to restaurants and bars. Having these materials at home are an invaluable way to practice mixing drinks, with the added benefit of allowing you to entertain guests at home! If you cannot acquire these materials, the course is still completable in theory, but you will miss out on the practical aspects of the course. No materials are needed for lesson one.

In addition to these materials, you will also need to ingredients to the recipes we'll prepare. This will be discussed when we talk about mixing drinks.

Start here with Lesson One: Bartending Basics.

= Bartending Basics =
What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks in a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars.

This lesson covers: 

#Sources of Alcohol
#Types of Alcohol
# Tools of Bartending
# Safety

== Sources of Alcohol ==
Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it.

Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: [[wikipedia:Ethanol|Ethanol]]. Ethanol is one of three types of alcohol and the only alcohol humans can safely drink. All alcoholic beverages whether it be beer, wine or a spirit all contain Ethanol.

There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world.  The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with Ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain Ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]].

=== Fermentation ===
[[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]]
Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At it base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. 

&quot;Sugars&quot; is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. 

Fermentation happens in a couple of steps.

# '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled.
# '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation.
# '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged.

Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. 

=== Distillation ===
[[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·lació_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]]
Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps:

# The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name).
# The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind.
# The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state.
# The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation.

The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. 

=== Alcohol By Volume ===
The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else.

ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. 

== Types of Alcohol ==
Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products.
[[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]]
There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer.

Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol.

=== Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) ===

==== Wine ====
We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosé]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Colors of wine
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
|-
!Red grapes
|'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice.
|'''''Rosé wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.
There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine.
|-
!White grapes
|'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result.
|'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness.
|}
''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosé wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' 

In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine.  

''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.''
==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ====
[[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. &quot;cherry wine&quot; or &quot;dandelion wine&quot;). 

[[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where &quot;cider&quot; also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term &quot;hard cider&quot; is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. 

[[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. 

''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.''
[[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]]

==== Beer ====
[[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types:  

* '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale.
** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling''
** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms''
** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell''

* '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager.
** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard''
** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA''
** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts''
** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon''
* Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks.
* Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller &quot;sour beer&quot; glass since they pack a punch.
* Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light''

==== Sake ====
[[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. 

''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota''

=== Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) ===
[[File:Alcoholic beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]]

==== Vodka ====
[[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails.

''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One''

==== Gin ====
[[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness.
[[File:Agave tequilana 2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]]
''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth''

==== Mezcal (Tequila) ====
[[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails.

''Common Names: Casamigos, Patrón, Jose Cuervo''

==== Rum ====
[[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called &quot;light rum&quot;. It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. &quot;Aged&quot; or &quot;Dark&quot; rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. 

''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' 

==== Brandy ====
[[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. 

''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac''

==== Whiskey ====
[[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is &quot;malted&quot;, meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields &quot;malt whiskey&quot;. The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields &quot;rye whiskey&quot;. &quot;[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]&quot; is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey.

''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale''

==== Soju ====
[[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails.

''Common Names: Jinro''

==== Liqueurs ====
[[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. 

''Common Names: Kahlua'' 

== Tools of Bartending ==
You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender.  A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows.
[[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]]
Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key.

How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces:

* '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other.
* '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 &amp; 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails.
* '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 &amp; 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling.
* '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker.

These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail.

== Safety ==
A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV.

Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a &quot;standard drink&quot;. A standard drink contains one &quot;unit&quot; of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol.
[[File:NIH standard drink comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's &quot;standard drink&quot;.]]
Some general best practices when consuming alcohol:

* One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking.
* Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated.
* Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects.
* Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour.

Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are:

* '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons.
* '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable.
* '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available.

Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are:

* Slurred speech
* Stumbling
* Glazed over or unfocused eyes
* Speaking too loudly or two softly
* Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders

If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called &quot;cutting them off&quot;. When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar.

Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now.

This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. 

= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# Glassware
# Typology of cocktails
# Preparation and Skills
# Essential Cocktails
This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.

{{Navbox
| name     =  Glassware
| title    = [[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]
|listclass = hlist
|state = expanded
|group1 = [[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]
|list1  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}

|group2 = [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]
|list2  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}

|group3 = [[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]
|list3  =
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}

}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. 

The families we're going to talk about are: 

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters 

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash to your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus × aurantium - fruits cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).
If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]] ]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. 
[[File:Bartender Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will always start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. 
# The large mixing cup is placed overtop the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to whack the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. 
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from left to right. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open).[[File:Stirring with a bar spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring wine into a decanter.jpg|left|thumb|Pouring wine|296x296px]]

==== Uncorking Still Wine ====

# Find a wine key with a double-hinge.
# Using the knife, cut the foil around the lip of the bottle. Using the bottle opener end of the key, peel back to foil to expose the cork.
# Insert the corkscrew into the center of the cork by twisting until most of the screw is embedded.
# Place the first hinge on the lip of the bottle, and use it as leverage to lift up on the wine key (lifting the cork partially).
# Place the second hinge of the lip of the bottle, and completely remove the cork.
'''Serving Beer'''

# Whether pouring from a bottle or a tap, tilt the glass 45° and pour the beer down the side of glass to prevent too much foam, or &quot;head&quot;, from developing.
# At the end of the pour, straighten the glass to allow for some head to form.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. 

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=1|width=50}}
Vodka
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=2|width=50}}
Gin
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=3|width=50}}
Rum
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=4|width=50}}
Tequila
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=5|width=50}}
Whiskey
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=11|width=50}}
Other/Mixed
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

½ oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
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'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the mint, lime juice and sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with soda water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
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=== French 75 ===
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'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

½ oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
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=== Gimlet ===
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'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 ½ oz Gin

½ oz Lime Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
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=== Manhattan ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rye Whiskey

½ oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Mai Tai ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

½ oz Orange Curaçao

½ oz Orgeat

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
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=== Pina Colada ===
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'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 ½ oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
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=== Bloody Mary ===
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'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

½ Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
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=== Negroni ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
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'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
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'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
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=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. 

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

½ oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
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=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.

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'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill'' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
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Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to Lesson 3: Hospitality.

= Hospitality =
In this lesson, we'll be talking about some points of service and hospitality that are as essential to bartending as alcohol. The sections in this lesson are:
# What is Hospitality?
# Steps of Service
# Internal Hospitality
# Developing Taste

== What is Hospitality? ==
Mixing drinks is only half the job, maybe even less than half. The real job is [[wiktionary:hospitality|hospitality]].&lt;blockquote&gt;The act or service of welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests; an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity toward guests. &lt;/blockquote&gt;In German the word is ''gastfreundschaft'' or guest-friendship. This encapsulates the charge of all bartenders to make the patrons of our bars feel welcome from the moment the walk through our doors to the moment they leave. Ideally, they still feel welcome long after they've left—they might just come back!

'''If you want to be there, so will they.''' People can immediately tell if you want to be there or not. If your vibes a drag, people won't want to talk to you. There's the catch: ''people need to talk to you to get drinks''. If people don't want to talk to you, they'll leave, and they won't come back. If you can find time to smile at people while behind the bar, you'll find your job is actually easier.

== Steps of Service ==
Service and hospitality are related, but separate ideas. Service is the mechanics of bartending: mixing drinks, closing tabs, cleaning and clearing. Hospitality is how you make your patrons feel. Keeping your service up will go a long ways towards making an environment hospitable. If the drink service is slow and the bar is messy, patrons are not gonna feel good. That's an example of service impacting hospitality.

When a patron comes to a bar, there's steps to how the they should be served that blend hospitality and service technique. Let's go over the steps of providing good service.

# &lt;u&gt;Greet the Patron&lt;/u&gt; - Make eye contact with each person as they enter or approach your bar. Try to keep a relaxed, or at least welcoming posture. Greet them warmly, making it clear that you see them and that you're happy they're here. Offer then a menu and pour them a water if your bar allows.
# &lt;u&gt;Take the Order&lt;/u&gt; - Once they've had a moment, or if they look immediately ready, ask what they would like to order or if they have any questions. Repeat what they've order back to them so that they can let you know if you misheard.
# &lt;u&gt;Mix the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Maybe they've ordered beer or wine that just need to be poured, or maybe they've ordered several shaken drinks. Now's the time to make them. While you're making drinks, be sure to look up at the bar and greet people as they arrive.
# &lt;u&gt;Drop the Drinks&lt;/u&gt; - Bring finished drinks to guests as soon as they're finished. Mixed drinks have a short shelf life, and should be  delivered promptly.
# &lt;u&gt;Check in&lt;/u&gt; - Give them a few moments to taste their drinks. Check in with an open ended question. &quot;How is everything?&quot; Many people won't tell you if they don't like the drink, so feel free to try to make them comfortable with giving honest feedback. You can always remake a drink!
# &lt;u&gt;Clear and Ask&lt;/u&gt; - When they're done with their drinks, clear any unneeded dishes and give the bar a wipe (avoiding pushing any crumbs onto your patron's lap). Then ask if they'd like another round. It's best to keep this question open and neutral. We don't need to push people to get another drink. A simple, &quot;What's next?&quot; gives patrons the floor to tell you what they need.
# &lt;u&gt;Close Out&lt;/u&gt; - When they've asked for a check, close out and bring the check quickly. The dead time when a patron wants to leave but can't yet is a vibe killer. You should prioritize closing them out and letting them leave quickly. When you drop the check, make eye contact, smile and thank them for coming.

== Internal Hospitality ==
Hospitality isn't something reserved for the patrons of your bar. Hospitality is something that should be shown to your teammates and everyone you work with. Think of it like this: &lt;blockquote&gt;If you're willing to give 100% attention, kindness and respect to complete strangers who walk up to your bar, shouldn't you be willing to give even more to the people you work with and see every day?&lt;/blockquote&gt;The people you work with at your bar will be the most valuable and important resource you have, making them feel good when they're around you is equally if not more important than patron hospitality. They will give you invaluable tips, unlock opportunities you've never imagined, and maybe become lifelong friends, but only if you treat them with the same, or more, hospitality you give to bar patrons.

One step further, hospitality is something you can show yourself. If we return to the definition of hospitality ''as an appropriate attitude of openness, respect, and generosity'', you can absolutely show hospitality to yourself. Respect your needs, be generous with time away from work and be open to making mistakes and learning. You'll find that bartending will be more pleasurable and that positive feeling will make your job even easier.

== Developing Taste ==
Oftentimes patrons of your bar will ask your opinion on drinks, the menu and even the area around the bar. It's good hospitality to be able to answer their questions to the best of your ability. Here's some tips on each of those topics.

=== Tasting Alcohol ===
Tasting alcohol, including straight spirits, is a unique experience that is often undervalued. Skilled sommeliers can detect subtle notes at different moments when drinking a wine. Something similar can be done with spirits. Just a reminder that you don't have to swallow a drink to taste it. It's common for bartenders to spit a drink out when tasting it, especially on the job.

# Smell the spirit. Don't stick your nose straight into it! Hover your nose above the spirit so that you can get a natural whiff of the aroma.
# Take a sip and swirl it around. Your mouth can hold on to tastes for quite a while, and this first swirl will clear that up.
# Take another sip, and appreciate the flavor. This is the part that takes time, patience and skill. There are several ways to break up flavors. What did you taste the second it hit your tongue? What about after spitting it out or swallowing? You can try to pick up on the biggest notes first. Is it smokey? Sour? Bitter? Then try honing in on something more subtle. Are there herbal notes? Fruity?

=== Giving Recommendations ===
''If you're reading this, this lesson is still under construction! Feel free to add, edit, or [[User:Sabbier|message me]].''</text>
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    <title>The John Snow Prediabetes Institute</title>
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== '''The John Snow Prediabetes Institute.''' ==
[[File:ChatGPT Image 30 may 2026, 11 58 20 a.m.png|thumb|Prediabetes-remission research program]]

[[File:ChatGPT Image 24 abr 2026, 08 16 04 a.m.png|thumb|]]
Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools.(12+ y).The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer, and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Early diagnosis of prediabetes can provide both health and financial benefits.From a financial perspective, preventing or delaying diabetes can significantly lower healthcare costs. Early diagnosis of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes while helping individuals and healthcare systems avoid the substantial costs associated with diabetes and its complications.[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.]]
[[File:John Snow.jpg|thumb|left| John Snow in the early nineteenth century]]
[[File:Cholera in London 1866.gif|thumb|250px|Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866]] [[File:Choleramaplondon1866.png|thumb|right|250px|Legend for the map above]]

1. '&lt;nowiki/&gt;'''Prevalence studies''''

1.1 The-International-Maritime-Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/z3cq5ciiev06y8v9duw7u/A-International-Maritime-Health-Database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=pt0kdesvmagcxaa2wez3tmza3 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.2 The Maritime Officer`s Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/t/8LjP7cmulhr2x8Ty &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5. School childrens Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;


2. '''Intervention studies''' Englsh 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt; 

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Strategies for research and implementation''' 
For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (Body Mass Index) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids` schools..
A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained:

'''5. Minutes from meetings''' &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/t/3ZfLGngkS3pSlAQ3 &lt;/ref&gt;

6. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Antonio Roberto Abaya MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark,&lt;/small&gt;
==References==
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
&lt;references /&gt;Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;

= Online Meeting , May 11, 2026 =
Prediabetes – Remission in Small - and medium economy countries is the target.
Keeping eyes open for applications for lifestyle medicine, sporadic supplement metformin

Prepare documentation to apply for funding. Clearly define the project title, objectives, scope (countries, communities, ages), strategy (how to collect data, with what equipment, what variables), required materials, and required personnel.

Meeting with Lene Daugaard dir. SIMAC Svendborg.

Periodically search for organizations that could fund our project.

Apply for funding when the opportunity arises.

Obtain those funds.

In parallel, without interruption, continue prevalence data collection and a comparative study between countries can be conducted using this collected data.

Intervention study 16 weeks in one or two of the target populations.

Proposed budget for 5 years:  5 mill Dkr.

The first year could be collect data from two countries, Denmark and Turkey (Istanbul) compare with the data from Panama, UMIP including a short review study on similar data and an 16 week intervention study with the goal to produce a strategic model for prevalence and effectful intervention to be reported in 1-2 international  articles.

Possible funding entities: 
Innovation Fund Denmark;
EIFO;
DANIDA;
CROWDFOUNDING;
European Commission programs;
SKOV website;
Lundbeckfonden: other</text>
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'''&lt;big&gt;The John Snow Prediabetes Institute.&lt;/big&gt;'''[[File:ChatGPT Image 30 may 2026, 11 58 20 a.m.png|thumb|&lt;big&gt;Prediabetes-remission research program&lt;/big&gt;]]

[[File:ChatGPT Image 24 abr 2026, 08 16 04 a.m.png|thumb|]]&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools.(12+ y).The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer, and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Early diagnosis of prediabetes can provide both health and financial benefits.From a financial perspective, preventing or delaying diabetes can significantly lower healthcare costs. Early diagnosis of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes while helping individuals and healthcare systems avoid the substantial costs associated with diabetes and its complications.&lt;/big&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:John Snow.jpg|thumb|left|&lt;big&gt;John Snow in the early nineteenth century&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:Cholera in London 1866.gif|thumb|250px|&lt;big&gt;Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866&lt;/big&gt;]] [[File:Choleramaplondon1866.png|thumb|right|250px|&lt;big&gt;Legend for the map above&lt;/big&gt;]]&lt;big&gt;1. '&lt;nowiki/&gt;'''Prevalence studies''''&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.1 The-International-Maritime-Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/z3cq5ciiev06y8v9duw7u/A-International-Maritime-Health-Database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=pt0kdesvmagcxaa2wez3tmza3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.2 The Maritime Officer`s Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/t/8LjP7cmulhr2x8Ty &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5. School childrens Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' Englsh 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;4. '''Strategies for research and implementation''' 
For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (Body Mass Index) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids` schools..
A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained:&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;'''5. Minutes from meetings''' &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/t/3ZfLGngkS3pSlAQ3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;6. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;small&gt;Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark,, Dr.&lt;/small&gt; 

==References==
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
&lt;references /&gt;Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;

= Online Meeting , May 11, 2026 =
Prediabetes – Remission in Small - and medium economy countries is the target.
Keeping eyes open for applications for lifestyle medicine, sporadic supplement metformin

Prepare documentation to apply for funding. Clearly define the project title, objectives, scope (countries, communities, ages), strategy (how to collect data, with what equipment, what variables), required materials, and required personnel.

Meeting with Lene Daugaard dir. SIMAC Svendborg.

Periodically search for organizations that could fund our project.

Apply for funding when the opportunity arises.

Obtain those funds.

In parallel, without interruption, continue prevalence data collection and a comparative study between countries can be conducted using this collected data.

Intervention study 16 weeks in one or two of the target populations.

Proposed budget for 5 years:  5 mill Dkr.

The first year could be collect data from two countries, Denmark and Turkey (Istanbul) compare with the data from Panama, UMIP including a short review study on similar data and an 16 week intervention study with the goal to produce a strategic model for prevalence and effectful intervention to be reported in 1-2 international  articles.

Possible funding entities: 
Innovation Fund Denmark;
EIFO;
DANIDA;
CROWDFOUNDING;
European Commission programs;
SKOV website;
Lundbeckfonden: other</text>
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'''&lt;big&gt;The John Snow Prediabetes Institute.&lt;/big&gt;'''[[File:ChatGPT Image 30 may 2026, 11 58 20 a.m.png|thumb|&lt;big&gt;Prediabetes-remission research program&lt;/big&gt;]]

[[File:ChatGPT Image 24 abr 2026, 08 16 04 a.m.png|thumb|]]&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools.(12+ y).The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer, and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Early diagnosis of prediabetes can provide both health and financial benefits.From a financial perspective, preventing or delaying diabetes can significantly lower healthcare costs. Early diagnosis of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes while helping individuals and healthcare systems avoid the substantial costs associated with diabetes and its complications.&lt;/big&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:John Snow.jpg|thumb|left|&lt;big&gt;John Snow in the early nineteenth century&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:Cholera in London 1866.gif|thumb|250px|&lt;big&gt;Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866&lt;/big&gt;]] [[File:Choleramaplondon1866.png|thumb|right|250px|&lt;big&gt;Legend for the map above&lt;/big&gt;]]&lt;big&gt;1. '&lt;nowiki/&gt;'''Prevalence studies''''&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.1 The-International-Maritime-Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/z3cq5ciiev06y8v9duw7u/A-International-Maritime-Health-Database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=pt0kdesvmagcxaa2wez3tmza3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.2 The Maritime Officer`s Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/t/8LjP7cmulhr2x8Ty &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5. School childrens Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' Englsh 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;4. '''Strategies for research and implementation''' 
For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (Body Mass Index) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids` schools..
A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained:&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;'''5. Minutes from meetings''' &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/t/3ZfLGngkS3pSlAQ3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;6. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;small&gt;Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark,, Dr.&lt;/small&gt; 

==References==
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
&lt;references /&gt;Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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'''&lt;big&gt;The John Snow Prediabetes Institute.&lt;/big&gt;'''[[File:ChatGPT Image 30 may 2026, 11 58 20 a.m.png|thumb|&lt;big&gt;Prediabetes-remission research program&lt;/big&gt;]]

[[File:ChatGPT Image 24 abr 2026, 08 16 04 a.m.png|thumb|]]&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools.(12+ y).The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer, and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Early diagnosis of prediabetes can provide both health and financial benefits.From a financial perspective, preventing or delaying diabetes can significantly lower healthcare costs. Early diagnosis of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes while helping individuals and healthcare systems avoid the substantial costs associated with diabetes and its complications.&lt;/big&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:John Snow.jpg|thumb||100px right|&lt;big&gt;John Snow in the early nineteenth century&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:Cholera in London 1866.gif|thumb|250px|&lt;big&gt;Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866&lt;/big&gt;]] [[File:Choleramaplondon1866.png|thumb|right|250px|&lt;big&gt;Legend for the map above&lt;/big&gt;]]&lt;big&gt;1. '&lt;nowiki/&gt;'''Prevalence studies''''&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.1 The-International-Maritime-Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/z3cq5ciiev06y8v9duw7u/A-International-Maritime-Health-Database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=pt0kdesvmagcxaa2wez3tmza3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.2 The Maritime Officer`s Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/t/8LjP7cmulhr2x8Ty &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5. School childrens Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' Englsh 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;4. '''Strategies for research and implementation''' 
For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (Body Mass Index) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids` schools..
A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained:&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;'''5. Minutes from meetings''' &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/t/3ZfLGngkS3pSlAQ3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;6. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;small&gt;Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark,, Dr.&lt;/small&gt; 

==References==
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
&lt;references /&gt;Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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'''&lt;big&gt;The John Snow Prediabetes Institute.&lt;/big&gt;'''[[File:ChatGPT Image 30 may 2026, 11 58 20 a.m.png|thumb|&lt;big&gt;Prediabetes-remission research program&lt;/big&gt;]]

[[File:ChatGPT Image 24 abr 2026, 08 16 04 a.m.png|thumb|]]&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools.(12+ y).The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer, and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Early diagnosis of prediabetes can provide both health and financial benefits.From a financial perspective, preventing or delaying diabetes can significantly lower healthcare costs. Early diagnosis of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes while helping individuals and healthcare systems avoid the substantial costs associated with diabetes and its complications.&lt;/big&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:John Snow.jpg|thumb||100px right|&lt;big&gt;John Snow in the early nineteenth century&lt;/big&gt;]]
[[File:Cholera in London 1866.gif|thumb|250px|&lt;big&gt;Map of a later cholera outbreak in London, in 1866&lt;/big&gt;]] [[File:Choleramaplondon1866.png|thumb|right|250px|&lt;big&gt;Legend for the map above&lt;/big&gt;]]&lt;big&gt;1. '&lt;nowiki/&gt;'''Prevalence studies''''&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;big&gt;1.1 The-International-Maritime-Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/z3cq5ciiev06y8v9duw7u/A-International-Maritime-Health-Database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=pt0kdesvmagcxaa2wez3tmza3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.2 The Maritime Officer`s Health-Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/t/8LjP7cmulhr2x8Ty &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5. School childrens Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' Englsh 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;4. '''Strategies for research and implementation''' 
For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (Body Mass Index) and the fasting blood sugar in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids` schools..
A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained:&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;'''5. Minutes from meetings''' &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/t/3ZfLGngkS3pSlAQ3 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;6. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;small&gt;Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark,, Dr.&lt;/small&gt; 

==References==
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
&lt;references /&gt;Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>9kdcyxl0mv3sj6l33wlx098gppg9uiz</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:The John Snow Prediabetes Institute</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>330495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818056</id>
      <parentid>2817815</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T12:33:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Please dont delete this page */</comment>
      <origin>2818056</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="582" sha1="4re55kizp9lolns7hnfcx2424fnhkup" xml:space="preserve">== Please dont delete this page ==

This page contains very important information for our health research. Thanks! [[User:NDM2024|NDM2024]] ([[User talk:NDM2024|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/NDM2024|contribs]]) 16:37, 6 July 2026 (UTC)
This is an important, scientific, international health research project that can help a lot of persons to identify diabetes early and prevent the diabetes-2  health damages, cardiovaskular, eye damages etc  --[[User:NDM2024|NDM2024]] ([[User talk:NDM2024|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/NDM2024|contribs]]) 12:32, 10 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>4re55kizp9lolns7hnfcx2424fnhkup</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Ozzie10aaaa/common.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>330532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818064</id>
      <parentid>2818025</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T12:52:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ozzie10aaaa</username>
        <id>1613251</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2818064</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="342" sha1="2qb4ilm9s9hho3tv3nzvy9zr60s097k" xml:space="preserve">// Live clock for Wikiversity pages
mw.hook('wikipage.content').add(function() {
    var clock = document.getElementById('wv-live-clock');
    if (!clock) return;

    function updateClock() {
        var now = new Date();
        clock.textContent = now.toLocaleTimeString();
    }

    updateClock();
    setInterval(updateClock, 1000);
});</text>
      <sha1>2qb4ilm9s9hho3tv3nzvy9zr60s097k</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Gauri Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>330537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818079</id>
      <parentid>2818052</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T15:37:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gauri Guptaa</username>
        <id>3008577</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2818079</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="5342" sha1="2hlr5e801kdi2ecvlfejtq3lmtzbs6p" xml:space="preserve">/**
 * Course Progress Tracker — adds &quot;mark as done&quot; checkboxes next to lesson
 * links on a Wikiversity course page, shows a visual progress bar, and
 * persists completion state permanently via a userjs- prefixed user
 * option (stored server-side on the account, survives across devices).
 *
 * Detects lessons by matching &quot;Lesson N&quot; in the link's VISIBLE TEXT
 * (not just the URL/title), since some lessons are linked via redirect
 * pages whose title doesn't contain the word &quot;Lesson&quot;.
 *
 * Save at: en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Gauri_Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js
 * Load via common.js:
 *   mw.loader.load('/w/index.php?title=User:Gauri_Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js&amp;action=raw&amp;ctype=text/javascript');
 *
 * @author  [[User:Gauri_Guptaa]]
 * @license CC0-1.0
 */
/* global mw */
( function () {
	'use strict';

	if ( mw.config.get( 'wgAction' ) !== 'view' ) { return; }
	if ( mw.config.get( 'wgNamespaceNumber' ) !== 0 ) { return; } // course/content namespace only

	var pageName = mw.config.get( 'wgPageName' ).replace( /_/g, ' ' );
	var optionKey = 'userjs-cpt-' + pageName.replace( /[^a-zA-Z0-9]/g, '_' ).slice( 0, 60 );

	mw.util.addCSS(
		'#cpt-bar-wrap{margin:1em 0;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-radius:4px;padding:10px 14px;background:var(--background-color-interactive,#f8f9fa);font-size:13px;}' +
		'#cpt-bar-label{margin-bottom:6px;color:#202122;font-weight:600;}' +
		'#cpt-bar-track{height:10px;border-radius:5px;background:#eaecf0;overflow:hidden;}' +
		'#cpt-bar-fill{height:100%;background:#00af89;width:0%;transition:width .3s ease;}' +
		'.cpt-checkbox{margin-right:6px;transform:scale(1.1);cursor:pointer;vertical-align:middle;}' +
		'.cpt-done-text{text-decoration:line-through;color:#54595d;}'
	);

	var api = new mw.Api();

	function readSavedState() {
		var raw = mw.user.options.get( optionKey );
		if ( !raw ) { return []; }
		try {
			return JSON.parse( raw );
		} catch ( e ) { return []; }
	}

	function saveState( doneList ) {
		var json = JSON.stringify( doneList );
		mw.user.options.set( optionKey, json );
		var data = {};
		data[ optionKey ] = json;
		api.saveOptions( data );
	}

	function updateProgressBar( $fill, $label, done, total ) {
		var pct = total ? Math.round( ( done / total ) * 100 ) : 0;
		$fill.css( 'width', pct + '%' );
		$label.text( 'Course progress: ' + done + ' / ' + total + ' lessons (' + pct + '%)' );
	}

	function init() {
		var seenLessonNumbers = {};
		var items = [];

		$( '#mw-content-text a[href]' ).each( function () {
			var $link = $( this );
			var href = $link.attr( 'href' ) || '';
			var title = mw.util.getParamValue( 'title', href ) ||
				decodeURIComponent( href.replace( /^.*\/wiki\//, '' ) ).replace( /_/g, ' ' );

			if ( title.indexOf( pageName + '/' ) !== 0 ) { return; }
			var subTitle = title.slice( pageName.length + 1 );

			// Prefer matching &quot;Lesson N&quot; in the visible link text (reliable
			// even for redirect/shortcut pages); fall back to the title.
			var linkText = $link.text();
			var m = linkText.match( /Lesson\s*(\d+)/i ) || subTitle.match( /Lesson\s*(\d+)/i );
			if ( !m ) { return; }

			var lessonNum = m[ 1 ];
			if ( seenLessonNumbers[ lessonNum ] ) { return; } // dedupe by lesson number

			seenLessonNumbers[ lessonNum ] = true;
			items.push( { $link: $link, title: title, num: parseInt( lessonNum, 10 ) } );
		} );

		items.sort( function ( a, b ) { return a.num - b.num; } ); // keep lesson order 1,2,3...

		if ( !items.length ) { return; }

		var savedDone = readSavedState();
		var total = items.length;

		var $barWrap = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-wrap&quot;&gt;' );
		var $label = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-label&quot;&gt;' );
		var $track = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-track&quot;&gt;' );
		var $fill = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-fill&quot;&gt;' );
		$track.append( $fill );
		$barWrap.append( $label, $track );

		// Insert at the top of #content (stable across skins), not inside
		// #firstHeading (which can be a flex container and break layout).
		var $content = $( '#content' );
		if ( $content.length ) {
			$content.prepend( $barWrap );
		} else {
			$( '#mw-content-text' ).before( $barWrap );
		}

		function countDone() {
			return items.filter( function ( item ) {
				return item.$checkbox.is( ':checked' );
			} ).length;
		}

		function refreshBar() {
			updateProgressBar( $fill, $label, countDone(), total );
		}

		items.forEach( function ( item ) {
			// Save/read state keyed by lesson NUMBER (stable identifier,
			// unaffected by quote-mark variants or redirect targets).
			var stateKey = 'lesson-' + item.num;
			var isDone = savedDone.indexOf( stateKey ) !== -1;

			var $checkbox = $( '&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; class=&quot;cpt-checkbox&quot;&gt;' ).prop( 'checked', isDone );
			item.$link.toggleClass( 'cpt-done-text', isDone );
			item.$link.before( $checkbox );
			item.$checkbox = $checkbox;

			$checkbox.on( 'change', function () {
				var checked = $checkbox.is( ':checked' );
				item.$link.toggleClass( 'cpt-done-text', checked );

				var current = readSavedState();
				var idx = current.indexOf( stateKey );
				if ( checked &amp;&amp; idx === -1 ) {
					current.push( stateKey );
				} else if ( !checked &amp;&amp; idx !== -1 ) {
					current.splice( idx, 1 );
				}
				saveState( current );
				refreshBar();
			} );
		} );

		refreshBar();
	}

	mw.loader.using( [ 'mediawiki.api', 'mediawiki.util' ] ).then( function () {
		$( init );
	} );

}() );</text>
      <sha1>2hlr5e801kdi2ecvlfejtq3lmtzbs6p</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2818080</id>
      <parentid>2818079</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T15:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gauri Guptaa</username>
        <id>3008577</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2818080</origin>
      <model>javascript</model>
      <format>text/javascript</format>
      <text bytes="5166" sha1="altfxymfszttxdoet3w0mj0jw01ho70" xml:space="preserve">/**
 * Course Progress Tracker — adds &quot;mark as done&quot; checkboxes next to lesson
 * links on a Wikiversity course page, shows a visual progress bar, and
 * persists completion state permanently via a userjs- prefixed user
 * option (stored server-side on the account, survives across devices).
 *
 * Detects lessons by matching &quot;Lesson N&quot; in the link's VISIBLE TEXT
 * (not just the URL/title), since some lessons are linked via redirect
 * pages whose title doesn't contain the word &quot;Lesson&quot;.
 *
 * Save at: en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Gauri_Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js
 * Load via common.js:
 *   mw.loader.load('/w/index.php?title=User:Gauri_Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js&amp;action=raw&amp;ctype=text/javascript');
 *
 * @author  [[User:Gauri_Guptaa]]
 * @license CC0-1.0
 */
/* global mw */
( function () {
	'use strict';

	if ( mw.config.get( 'wgAction' ) !== 'view' ) { return; }
	if ( mw.config.get( 'wgNamespaceNumber' ) !== 0 ) { return; } // course/content namespace only

	var pageName = mw.config.get( 'wgPageName' ).replace( /_/g, ' ' );
	var optionKey = 'userjs-cpt-' + pageName.replace( /[^a-zA-Z0-9]/g, '_' ).slice( 0, 60 );

	mw.util.addCSS(
		'#cpt-bar-wrap{margin:1em 0;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-radius:4px;padding:10px 14px;background:var(--background-color-interactive,#f8f9fa);font-size:13px;}' +
		'#cpt-bar-label{margin-bottom:6px;color:#202122;font-weight:600;}' +
		'#cpt-bar-track{height:10px;border-radius:5px;background:#eaecf0;overflow:hidden;}' +
		'#cpt-bar-fill{height:100%;background:#00af89;width:0%;transition:width .3s ease;}' +
		'.cpt-checkbox{margin-right:6px;transform:scale(1.1);cursor:pointer;vertical-align:middle;}'
	);

	var api = new mw.Api();

	function readSavedState() {
		var raw = mw.user.options.get( optionKey );
		if ( !raw ) { return []; }
		try {
			return JSON.parse( raw );
		} catch ( e ) { return []; }
	}

	function saveState( doneList ) {
		var json = JSON.stringify( doneList );
		mw.user.options.set( optionKey, json );
		var data = {};
		data[ optionKey ] = json;
		api.saveOptions( data );
	}

	function updateProgressBar( $fill, $label, done, total ) {
		var pct = total ? Math.round( ( done / total ) * 100 ) : 0;
		$fill.css( 'width', pct + '%' );
		$label.text( 'Course progress: ' + done + ' / ' + total + ' lessons (' + pct + '%)' );
	}

	function init() {
		var seenLessonNumbers = {};
		var items = [];

		$( '#mw-content-text a[href]' ).each( function () {
			var $link = $( this );
			var href = $link.attr( 'href' ) || '';
			var title = mw.util.getParamValue( 'title', href ) ||
				decodeURIComponent( href.replace( /^.*\/wiki\//, '' ) ).replace( /_/g, ' ' );

			if ( title.indexOf( pageName + '/' ) !== 0 ) { return; }
			var subTitle = title.slice( pageName.length + 1 );

			// Prefer matching &quot;Lesson N&quot; in the visible link text (reliable
			// even for redirect/shortcut pages); fall back to the title.
			var linkText = $link.text();
			var m = linkText.match( /Lesson\s*(\d+)/i ) || subTitle.match( /Lesson\s*(\d+)/i );
			if ( !m ) { return; }

			var lessonNum = m[ 1 ];
			if ( seenLessonNumbers[ lessonNum ] ) { return; } // dedupe by lesson number

			seenLessonNumbers[ lessonNum ] = true;
			items.push( { $link: $link, title: title, num: parseInt( lessonNum, 10 ) } );
		} );

		items.sort( function ( a, b ) { return a.num - b.num; } ); // keep lesson order 1,2,3...

		if ( !items.length ) { return; }

		var savedDone = readSavedState();
		var total = items.length;

		var $barWrap = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-wrap&quot;&gt;' );
		var $label = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-label&quot;&gt;' );
		var $track = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-track&quot;&gt;' );
		var $fill = $( '&lt;div id=&quot;cpt-bar-fill&quot;&gt;' );
		$track.append( $fill );
		$barWrap.append( $label, $track );

		// Insert at the top of #content (stable across skins), not inside
		// #firstHeading (which can be a flex container and break layout).
		var $content = $( '#content' );
		if ( $content.length ) {
			$content.prepend( $barWrap );
		} else {
			$( '#mw-content-text' ).before( $barWrap );
		}

		function countDone() {
			return items.filter( function ( item ) {
				return item.$checkbox.is( ':checked' );
			} ).length;
		}

		function refreshBar() {
			updateProgressBar( $fill, $label, countDone(), total );
		}

		items.forEach( function ( item ) {
			// Save/read state keyed by lesson NUMBER (stable identifier,
			// unaffected by quote-mark variants or redirect targets).
			var stateKey = 'lesson-' + item.num;
			var isDone = savedDone.indexOf( stateKey ) !== -1;

			var $checkbox = $( '&lt;input type=&quot;checkbox&quot; class=&quot;cpt-checkbox&quot;&gt;' ).prop( 'checked', isDone );
			item.$link.before( $checkbox );
			item.$checkbox = $checkbox;

			$checkbox.on( 'change', function () {
				var checked = $checkbox.is( ':checked' );

				var current = readSavedState();
				var idx = current.indexOf( stateKey );
				if ( checked &amp;&amp; idx === -1 ) {
					current.push( stateKey );
				} else if ( !checked &amp;&amp; idx !== -1 ) {
					current.splice( idx, 1 );
				}
				saveState( current );
				refreshBar();
			} );
		} );

		refreshBar();
	}

	mw.loader.using( [ 'mediawiki.api', 'mediawiki.util' ] ).then( function () {
		$( init );
	} );

}() );</text>
      <sha1>altfxymfszttxdoet3w0mj0jw01ho70</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:1despasito</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>330540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818059</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T12:41:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathXplore</username>
        <id>2888076</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]])</comment>
      <origin>2818059</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="806" sha1="sdzipmzambou30ce119uqye49ia0n81" xml:space="preserve">

== 2026-07-10 ==
&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/1despasito|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt; as a &quot;soapbox&quot;]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt;. Thanks. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1783687291363.3s --&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 10 July 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>sdzipmzambou30ce119uqye49ia0n81</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260710.pdf</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>330541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2818071</id>
      <timestamp>2026-07-10T13:52:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
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      <comment>{{Information
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