User:The Brain

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&quot;A soldier will fight long and hard for a bit of colored ribbon.&quot; Napoléon Bonaparte

[[fr:Utilisateur:The Brain]]
A brain...</text>
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&quot;A soldier will fight long and hard for a bit of colored ribbon.&quot; Napoléon Bonaparte

A brain...
[[fr:Utilisateur:The Brain]]</text>
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== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Report concerning [[special:contribs/Bśadów$ki112|Bśadów$ki112]] ==
'''Reasons''': Long-term abuse. Impersonation of [[:sulutil:Bsadowski1|Bsadowski1]]. --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:19, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:20, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==
proofreading and summarizing I excel in  social science and current events history political science are my areas of past study. Could I be custodian of primarily pages dealing with social science and politics? I have experience editing am a advanced reader and can accept more than one point of view on almost any topic the point is to see the ethical standard and protection of people of sacred belief of food equitable relationships and not accept any point of view that includes towards a laissez faire attitude on abuse. To me it's what we can do as individuals,as community,as friends as family not what harm is possible for that is off the boards not acceptable. I'll keep a open mind and not stifle any dissent. My interest is also in assuring the complete construction of explanatory paragraphs,proper wording and generally good punctuation.  [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50875-97|~2026-50875-97]] ([[User talk:~2026-50875-97|talk]]) 15:27, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

:What you posted here does not require custodian action and show some poor judgement: This board is for escalated issues that a standard user can't perform. What you are basically writing here is &quot;I would like to be a custodian&quot;. There is a process for that, but step one would be having an actual account to edit from, so do that first, then edit here as a non-custodian in a helpful manner, and then make the request if you'd still like that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:38, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

== I am trying to publish a biography ==
I am a beginner, I cannot succeed. [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 12:57, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

:I posted a [[Template:welcome|welcome message]] to your talk page that gives you an overview of Wikiversity. While a biography &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be considered appropriate here if part of a larger exercise in learning but this is not an encyclopedia like our sibling project Wikipedia, so generally, we won't have much in the way of article-long biographies. Why were you trying to post a biography here and of whom? ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:24, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::I am a writer I publish in Romania and USA, and I wanted to put on-line officially, the Bibliography, both in romanian and english, maybe I am not on the right topic pages, I did much work in Romania, and both in USA, and I am proud, but just maybe I didn't came out with the right issued page, I will do my best to make a bibliography, if I may. It was about my works, so far. I will try another day, if I succeed... Very much greetings Iulia, ro Where I can put the text, I have seen other Bibliographies, on wiki? [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 16:41, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
:::If you want to contribute here and you want to mention your publications on your userpage, I think that's fine. If you just want to make a user page for vanity's sake and aren't going to actually contribute here, I don't think that's useful: we don't provide free hosting. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:11, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::::Thank you very much for your response, I will agree with that. I have seen book lists at other authors, and that was why, is not vanity is work, Iulia E., from Romania... (Wikipedia hosted that kind, it was not my invention), maybe I will contribute if I may with other things, with much friendship, Iulia [[Special:Contributions/~2026-52080-44|~2026-52080-44]] ([[User talk:~2026-52080-44|talk]]) 22:00, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

== Request for protection of User:Bobiversity ==
Hello.

I would like to request protection of [[User:Bobiversity]] because I would prefer that other users not edit my user page.

Thank you. [[User:Bobiversity|Bobiversity]] ([[User talk:Bobiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bobiversity|contribs]]) 04:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

:The anonymous editor(s) have been blocked for two weeks for vandalism. Please let us know if this activity continues. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:57, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

::I reverted vandalism, and blocked an anonymous editor. The user page is temporarily protected to prevent further disruption. Please let us know if you have any further trouble. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to Create Page (?) ==
Hi, I'm trying to create a page: [[Magnetoencephalography (MEG)]]. &lt;/br&gt;

When I attempt to create it however, it does not allow me, spitting the following message: &lt;/br&gt;

&quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New user exceeded new page limit&quot;

Any help on this would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks,
[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:34, 12 October 2026 (UTC)

:There are restrictions on new accounts. We could do two things: I personally recommend that you create it in your userspace and build it up to be ready for primetime and then it can be moved or I could make a blank page and you can edit it from there. I'm willing to do that, but think it's not the best method. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:09, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::No worries, I'll just put it in my userspace; Thanks for the help! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 19:08, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], on  23:39, 15 March 2020, I posted a similar request &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#trying to create a page in my user space here|&lt;bdi&gt;trying to create a page in my user space here&lt;/bdi&gt;]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'' That was my first successful &quot;edit&quot; to this project. It took awhile to get my page established, and I believe but have not checked recently that it is still here. However, unlike my experience with another wiki project I never felt I could actually contribute here and as a result my contributions have been far and few between.
::I hope @ [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] will have better luck, but I sometimes wonder if all these bureaucratic restrictions , that create a lot  of work  for admins, are actually beneficial  for  this wiki as a whole. Just my $.02 [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:26, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
:::Temporary account users are welcome and we appreciate you wanting to add to the educational resources, but as you can imagine, we need to have some restrictions on accounts. It's hard to have perfect settings for these. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:41, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for replying @Koavf. I guess what I was trying to probe is why Wikiversity makes it so difficult for new users to start contributing here.  I have not been &quot;editing&quot; at the English Wikipedia for years, but I believe one can create a new page  without having to post a request at the Village Pump or at the admin noticeboard? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2026 (UTC)
:::::Per [[w:Wikipedia:User groups]]: &quot;Several actions on the English Wikipedia (such as article creation) are restricted to user accounts that have made at least ''10 edits'' to the English Wikipedia '''and''' after ''4 days'' have passed since the time of their first edit.&quot; Wikiversity is not much different from Wikipedia in this regard. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:37, 15 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Report concerning [[special:contribs/Bśadów$ki112|Bśadów$ki112]] ==
'''Reasons''': Long-term abuse. Impersonation of [[:sulutil:Bsadowski1|Bsadowski1]]. --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:19, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:20, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==
proofreading and summarizing I excel in  social science and current events history political science are my areas of past study. Could I be custodian of primarily pages dealing with social science and politics? I have experience editing am a advanced reader and can accept more than one point of view on almost any topic the point is to see the ethical standard and protection of people of sacred belief of food equitable relationships and not accept any point of view that includes towards a laissez faire attitude on abuse. To me it's what we can do as individuals,as community,as friends as family not what harm is possible for that is off the boards not acceptable. I'll keep a open mind and not stifle any dissent. My interest is also in assuring the complete construction of explanatory paragraphs,proper wording and generally good punctuation.  [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50875-97|~2026-50875-97]] ([[User talk:~2026-50875-97|talk]]) 15:27, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

:What you posted here does not require custodian action and show some poor judgement: This board is for escalated issues that a standard user can't perform. What you are basically writing here is &quot;I would like to be a custodian&quot;. There is a process for that, but step one would be having an actual account to edit from, so do that first, then edit here as a non-custodian in a helpful manner, and then make the request if you'd still like that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:38, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

== I am trying to publish a biography ==
I am a beginner, I cannot succeed. [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 12:57, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

:I posted a [[Template:welcome|welcome message]] to your talk page that gives you an overview of Wikiversity. While a biography &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be considered appropriate here if part of a larger exercise in learning but this is not an encyclopedia like our sibling project Wikipedia, so generally, we won't have much in the way of article-long biographies. Why were you trying to post a biography here and of whom? ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:24, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::I am a writer I publish in Romania and USA, and I wanted to put on-line officially, the Bibliography, both in romanian and english, maybe I am not on the right topic pages, I did much work in Romania, and both in USA, and I am proud, but just maybe I didn't came out with the right issued page, I will do my best to make a bibliography, if I may. It was about my works, so far. I will try another day, if I succeed... Very much greetings Iulia, ro Where I can put the text, I have seen other Bibliographies, on wiki? [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 16:41, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
:::If you want to contribute here and you want to mention your publications on your userpage, I think that's fine. If you just want to make a user page for vanity's sake and aren't going to actually contribute here, I don't think that's useful: we don't provide free hosting. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:11, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::::Thank you very much for your response, I will agree with that. I have seen book lists at other authors, and that was why, is not vanity is work, Iulia E., from Romania... (Wikipedia hosted that kind, it was not my invention), maybe I will contribute if I may with other things, with much friendship, Iulia [[Special:Contributions/~2026-52080-44|~2026-52080-44]] ([[User talk:~2026-52080-44|talk]]) 22:00, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

== Request for protection of User:Bobiversity ==
Hello.

I would like to request protection of [[User:Bobiversity]] because I would prefer that other users not edit my user page.

Thank you. [[User:Bobiversity|Bobiversity]] ([[User talk:Bobiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bobiversity|contribs]]) 04:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

:The anonymous editor(s) have been blocked for two weeks for vandalism. Please let us know if this activity continues. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:57, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

::I reverted vandalism, and blocked an anonymous editor. The user page is temporarily protected to prevent further disruption. Please let us know if you have any further trouble. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to Create Page (?) ==
Hi, I'm trying to create a page: [[Magnetoencephalography (MEG)]]. &lt;/br&gt;

When I attempt to create it however, it does not allow me, spitting the following message: &lt;/br&gt;

&quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New user exceeded new page limit&quot;

Any help on this would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks,
[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:34, 12 October 2026 (UTC)

:There are restrictions on new accounts. We could do two things: I personally recommend that you create it in your userspace and build it up to be ready for primetime and then it can be moved or I could make a blank page and you can edit it from there. I'm willing to do that, but think it's not the best method. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:09, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::No worries, I'll just put it in my userspace; Thanks for the help! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 19:08, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], on  23:39, 15 March 2020, I posted a similar request &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#trying to create a page in my user space here|&lt;bdi&gt;trying to create a page in my user space here&lt;/bdi&gt;]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'' That was my first successful &quot;edit&quot; to this project. It took awhile to get my page established, and I believe but have not checked recently that it is still here. However, unlike my experience with another wiki project I never felt I could actually contribute here and as a result my contributions have been far and few between.
::I hope @ [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] will have better luck, but I sometimes wonder if all these bureaucratic restrictions , that create a lot  of work  for admins, are actually beneficial  for  this wiki as a whole. Just my $.02 [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:26, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
:::Temporary account users are welcome and we appreciate you wanting to add to the educational resources, but as you can imagine, we need to have some restrictions on accounts. It's hard to have perfect settings for these. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:41, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for replying @Koavf. I guess what I was trying to probe is why Wikiversity makes it so difficult for new users to start contributing here.  I have not been &quot;editing&quot; at the English Wikipedia for years, but I believe one can create a new page  without having to post a request at the Village Pump or at the admin noticeboard? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2026 (UTC)
:::::Per [[w:Wikipedia:User groups]]: &quot;Several actions on the English Wikipedia (such as article creation) are restricted to user accounts that have made at least ''10 edits'' to the English Wikipedia '''and''' after ''4 days'' have passed since the time of their first edit.&quot; Wikiversity is not much different from Wikipedia in this regard. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:37, 15 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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        <id>2969951</id>
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      <comment>/* Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action/Archive/31#Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Report concerning [[special:contribs/Bśadów$ki112|Bśadów$ki112]] ==
'''Reasons''': Long-term abuse. Impersonation of [[:sulutil:Bsadowski1|Bsadowski1]]. --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:19, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:20, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==
proofreading and summarizing I excel in  social science and current events history political science are my areas of past study. Could I be custodian of primarily pages dealing with social science and politics? I have experience editing am a advanced reader and can accept more than one point of view on almost any topic the point is to see the ethical standard and protection of people of sacred belief of food equitable relationships and not accept any point of view that includes towards a laissez faire attitude on abuse. To me it's what we can do as individuals,as community,as friends as family not what harm is possible for that is off the boards not acceptable. I'll keep a open mind and not stifle any dissent. My interest is also in assuring the complete construction of explanatory paragraphs,proper wording and generally good punctuation.  [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50875-97|~2026-50875-97]] ([[User talk:~2026-50875-97|talk]]) 15:27, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

:What you posted here does not require custodian action and show some poor judgement: This board is for escalated issues that a standard user can't perform. What you are basically writing here is &quot;I would like to be a custodian&quot;. There is a process for that, but step one would be having an actual account to edit from, so do that first, then edit here as a non-custodian in a helpful manner, and then make the request if you'd still like that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:38, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

== I am trying to publish a biography ==
I am a beginner, I cannot succeed. [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 12:57, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

:I posted a [[Template:welcome|welcome message]] to your talk page that gives you an overview of Wikiversity. While a biography &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be considered appropriate here if part of a larger exercise in learning but this is not an encyclopedia like our sibling project Wikipedia, so generally, we won't have much in the way of article-long biographies. Why were you trying to post a biography here and of whom? ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:24, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::I am a writer I publish in Romania and USA, and I wanted to put on-line officially, the Bibliography, both in romanian and english, maybe I am not on the right topic pages, I did much work in Romania, and both in USA, and I am proud, but just maybe I didn't came out with the right issued page, I will do my best to make a bibliography, if I may. It was about my works, so far. I will try another day, if I succeed... Very much greetings Iulia, ro Where I can put the text, I have seen other Bibliographies, on wiki? [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 16:41, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
:::If you want to contribute here and you want to mention your publications on your userpage, I think that's fine. If you just want to make a user page for vanity's sake and aren't going to actually contribute here, I don't think that's useful: we don't provide free hosting. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:11, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::::Thank you very much for your response, I will agree with that. I have seen book lists at other authors, and that was why, is not vanity is work, Iulia E., from Romania... (Wikipedia hosted that kind, it was not my invention), maybe I will contribute if I may with other things, with much friendship, Iulia [[Special:Contributions/~2026-52080-44|~2026-52080-44]] ([[User talk:~2026-52080-44|talk]]) 22:00, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

== Request for protection of User:Bobiversity ==
Hello.

I would like to request protection of [[User:Bobiversity]] because I would prefer that other users not edit my user page.

Thank you. [[User:Bobiversity|Bobiversity]] ([[User talk:Bobiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bobiversity|contribs]]) 04:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

:The anonymous editor(s) have been blocked for two weeks for vandalism. Please let us know if this activity continues. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:57, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

::I reverted vandalism, and blocked an anonymous editor. The user page is temporarily protected to prevent further disruption. Please let us know if you have any further trouble. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to Create Page (?) ==
Hi, I'm trying to create a page: [[Magnetoencephalography (MEG)]]. &lt;/br&gt;

When I attempt to create it however, it does not allow me, spitting the following message: &lt;/br&gt;

&quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New user exceeded new page limit&quot;

Any help on this would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks,
[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:34, 12 October 2026 (UTC)

:There are restrictions on new accounts. We could do two things: I personally recommend that you create it in your userspace and build it up to be ready for primetime and then it can be moved or I could make a blank page and you can edit it from there. I'm willing to do that, but think it's not the best method. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:09, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::No worries, I'll just put it in my userspace; Thanks for the help! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 19:08, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], on  23:39, 15 March 2020, I posted a similar request &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#trying to create a page in my user space here|&lt;bdi&gt;trying to create a page in my user space here&lt;/bdi&gt;]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'' That was my first successful &quot;edit&quot; to this project. It took awhile to get my page established, and I believe but have not checked recently that it is still here. However, unlike my experience with another wiki project I never felt I could actually contribute here and as a result my contributions have been far and few between.
::I hope @ [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] will have better luck, but I sometimes wonder if all these bureaucratic restrictions , that create a lot  of work  for admins, are actually beneficial  for  this wiki as a whole. Just my $.02 [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:26, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
:::Temporary account users are welcome and we appreciate you wanting to add to the educational resources, but as you can imagine, we need to have some restrictions on accounts. It's hard to have perfect settings for these. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:41, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for replying @Koavf. I guess what I was trying to probe is why Wikiversity makes it so difficult for new users to start contributing here.  I have not been &quot;editing&quot; at the English Wikipedia for years, but I believe one can create a new page  without having to post a request at the Village Pump or at the admin noticeboard? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2026 (UTC)
:::::Per [[w:Wikipedia:User groups]]: &quot;Several actions on the English Wikipedia (such as article creation) are restricted to user accounts that have made at least ''10 edits'' to the English Wikipedia '''and''' after ''4 days'' have passed since the time of their first edit.&quot; Wikiversity is not much different from Wikipedia in this regard. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:37, 15 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Report concerning Bśadów$ki112 */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action/Archive/31#Report concerning Bśadów$ki112]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Custodianship ==
proofreading and summarizing I excel in  social science and current events history political science are my areas of past study. Could I be custodian of primarily pages dealing with social science and politics? I have experience editing am a advanced reader and can accept more than one point of view on almost any topic the point is to see the ethical standard and protection of people of sacred belief of food equitable relationships and not accept any point of view that includes towards a laissez faire attitude on abuse. To me it's what we can do as individuals,as community,as friends as family not what harm is possible for that is off the boards not acceptable. I'll keep a open mind and not stifle any dissent. My interest is also in assuring the complete construction of explanatory paragraphs,proper wording and generally good punctuation.  [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50875-97|~2026-50875-97]] ([[User talk:~2026-50875-97|talk]]) 15:27, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

:What you posted here does not require custodian action and show some poor judgement: This board is for escalated issues that a standard user can't perform. What you are basically writing here is &quot;I would like to be a custodian&quot;. There is a process for that, but step one would be having an actual account to edit from, so do that first, then edit here as a non-custodian in a helpful manner, and then make the request if you'd still like that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:38, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

== I am trying to publish a biography ==
I am a beginner, I cannot succeed. [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 12:57, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

:I posted a [[Template:welcome|welcome message]] to your talk page that gives you an overview of Wikiversity. While a biography &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be considered appropriate here if part of a larger exercise in learning but this is not an encyclopedia like our sibling project Wikipedia, so generally, we won't have much in the way of article-long biographies. Why were you trying to post a biography here and of whom? ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:24, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::I am a writer I publish in Romania and USA, and I wanted to put on-line officially, the Bibliography, both in romanian and english, maybe I am not on the right topic pages, I did much work in Romania, and both in USA, and I am proud, but just maybe I didn't came out with the right issued page, I will do my best to make a bibliography, if I may. It was about my works, so far. I will try another day, if I succeed... Very much greetings Iulia, ro Where I can put the text, I have seen other Bibliographies, on wiki? [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 16:41, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
:::If you want to contribute here and you want to mention your publications on your userpage, I think that's fine. If you just want to make a user page for vanity's sake and aren't going to actually contribute here, I don't think that's useful: we don't provide free hosting. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:11, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::::Thank you very much for your response, I will agree with that. I have seen book lists at other authors, and that was why, is not vanity is work, Iulia E., from Romania... (Wikipedia hosted that kind, it was not my invention), maybe I will contribute if I may with other things, with much friendship, Iulia [[Special:Contributions/~2026-52080-44|~2026-52080-44]] ([[User talk:~2026-52080-44|talk]]) 22:00, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

== Request for protection of User:Bobiversity ==
Hello.

I would like to request protection of [[User:Bobiversity]] because I would prefer that other users not edit my user page.

Thank you. [[User:Bobiversity|Bobiversity]] ([[User talk:Bobiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bobiversity|contribs]]) 04:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

:The anonymous editor(s) have been blocked for two weeks for vandalism. Please let us know if this activity continues. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:57, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

::I reverted vandalism, and blocked an anonymous editor. The user page is temporarily protected to prevent further disruption. Please let us know if you have any further trouble. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to Create Page (?) ==
Hi, I'm trying to create a page: [[Magnetoencephalography (MEG)]]. &lt;/br&gt;

When I attempt to create it however, it does not allow me, spitting the following message: &lt;/br&gt;

&quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New user exceeded new page limit&quot;

Any help on this would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks,
[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:34, 12 October 2026 (UTC)

:There are restrictions on new accounts. We could do two things: I personally recommend that you create it in your userspace and build it up to be ready for primetime and then it can be moved or I could make a blank page and you can edit it from there. I'm willing to do that, but think it's not the best method. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:09, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::No worries, I'll just put it in my userspace; Thanks for the help! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 19:08, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], on  23:39, 15 March 2020, I posted a similar request &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#trying to create a page in my user space here|&lt;bdi&gt;trying to create a page in my user space here&lt;/bdi&gt;]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'' That was my first successful &quot;edit&quot; to this project. It took awhile to get my page established, and I believe but have not checked recently that it is still here. However, unlike my experience with another wiki project I never felt I could actually contribute here and as a result my contributions have been far and few between.
::I hope @ [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] will have better luck, but I sometimes wonder if all these bureaucratic restrictions , that create a lot  of work  for admins, are actually beneficial  for  this wiki as a whole. Just my $.02 [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:26, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
:::Temporary account users are welcome and we appreciate you wanting to add to the educational resources, but as you can imagine, we need to have some restrictions on accounts. It's hard to have perfect settings for these. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:41, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for replying @Koavf. I guess what I was trying to probe is why Wikiversity makes it so difficult for new users to start contributing here.  I have not been &quot;editing&quot; at the English Wikipedia for years, but I believe one can create a new page  without having to post a request at the Village Pump or at the admin noticeboard? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2026 (UTC)
:::::Per [[w:Wikipedia:User groups]]: &quot;Several actions on the English Wikipedia (such as article creation) are restricted to user accounts that have made at least ''10 edits'' to the English Wikipedia '''and''' after ''4 days'' have passed since the time of their first edit.&quot; Wikiversity is not much different from Wikipedia in this regard. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:37, 15 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ew4isgsif5ww7hyjxjtyzolezpmou06</sha1>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Custodianship */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action/Archive/31#Custodianship]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== I am trying to publish a biography ==
I am a beginner, I cannot succeed. [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 12:57, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

:I posted a [[Template:welcome|welcome message]] to your talk page that gives you an overview of Wikiversity. While a biography &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be considered appropriate here if part of a larger exercise in learning but this is not an encyclopedia like our sibling project Wikipedia, so generally, we won't have much in the way of article-long biographies. Why were you trying to post a biography here and of whom? ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:24, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::I am a writer I publish in Romania and USA, and I wanted to put on-line officially, the Bibliography, both in romanian and english, maybe I am not on the right topic pages, I did much work in Romania, and both in USA, and I am proud, but just maybe I didn't came out with the right issued page, I will do my best to make a bibliography, if I may. It was about my works, so far. I will try another day, if I succeed... Very much greetings Iulia, ro Where I can put the text, I have seen other Bibliographies, on wiki? [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 16:41, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
:::If you want to contribute here and you want to mention your publications on your userpage, I think that's fine. If you just want to make a user page for vanity's sake and aren't going to actually contribute here, I don't think that's useful: we don't provide free hosting. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:11, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::::Thank you very much for your response, I will agree with that. I have seen book lists at other authors, and that was why, is not vanity is work, Iulia E., from Romania... (Wikipedia hosted that kind, it was not my invention), maybe I will contribute if I may with other things, with much friendship, Iulia [[Special:Contributions/~2026-52080-44|~2026-52080-44]] ([[User talk:~2026-52080-44|talk]]) 22:00, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

== Request for protection of User:Bobiversity ==
Hello.

I would like to request protection of [[User:Bobiversity]] because I would prefer that other users not edit my user page.

Thank you. [[User:Bobiversity|Bobiversity]] ([[User talk:Bobiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bobiversity|contribs]]) 04:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

:The anonymous editor(s) have been blocked for two weeks for vandalism. Please let us know if this activity continues. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:57, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

::I reverted vandalism, and blocked an anonymous editor. The user page is temporarily protected to prevent further disruption. Please let us know if you have any further trouble. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to Create Page (?) ==
Hi, I'm trying to create a page: [[Magnetoencephalography (MEG)]]. &lt;/br&gt;

When I attempt to create it however, it does not allow me, spitting the following message: &lt;/br&gt;

&quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New user exceeded new page limit&quot;

Any help on this would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks,
[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:34, 12 October 2026 (UTC)

:There are restrictions on new accounts. We could do two things: I personally recommend that you create it in your userspace and build it up to be ready for primetime and then it can be moved or I could make a blank page and you can edit it from there. I'm willing to do that, but think it's not the best method. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:09, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::No worries, I'll just put it in my userspace; Thanks for the help! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 19:08, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], on  23:39, 15 March 2020, I posted a similar request &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#trying to create a page in my user space here|&lt;bdi&gt;trying to create a page in my user space here&lt;/bdi&gt;]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'' That was my first successful &quot;edit&quot; to this project. It took awhile to get my page established, and I believe but have not checked recently that it is still here. However, unlike my experience with another wiki project I never felt I could actually contribute here and as a result my contributions have been far and few between.
::I hope @ [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] will have better luck, but I sometimes wonder if all these bureaucratic restrictions , that create a lot  of work  for admins, are actually beneficial  for  this wiki as a whole. Just my $.02 [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:26, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
:::Temporary account users are welcome and we appreciate you wanting to add to the educational resources, but as you can imagine, we need to have some restrictions on accounts. It's hard to have perfect settings for these. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:41, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for replying @Koavf. I guess what I was trying to probe is why Wikiversity makes it so difficult for new users to start contributing here.  I have not been &quot;editing&quot; at the English Wikipedia for years, but I believe one can create a new page  without having to post a request at the Village Pump or at the admin noticeboard? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2026 (UTC)
:::::Per [[w:Wikipedia:User groups]]: &quot;Several actions on the English Wikipedia (such as article creation) are restricted to user accounts that have made at least ''10 edits'' to the English Wikipedia '''and''' after ''4 days'' have passed since the time of their first edit.&quot; Wikiversity is not much different from Wikipedia in this regard. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:37, 15 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>qmsej3r0y1y10i1r4pk2mdefa1h98bk</sha1>
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        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* I am trying to publish a biography */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action/Archive/31#I am trying to publish a biography]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Request for protection of User:Bobiversity ==
Hello.

I would like to request protection of [[User:Bobiversity]] because I would prefer that other users not edit my user page.

Thank you. [[User:Bobiversity|Bobiversity]] ([[User talk:Bobiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bobiversity|contribs]]) 04:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

:The anonymous editor(s) have been blocked for two weeks for vandalism. Please let us know if this activity continues. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:57, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

::I reverted vandalism, and blocked an anonymous editor. The user page is temporarily protected to prevent further disruption. Please let us know if you have any further trouble. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to Create Page (?) ==
Hi, I'm trying to create a page: [[Magnetoencephalography (MEG)]]. &lt;/br&gt;

When I attempt to create it however, it does not allow me, spitting the following message: &lt;/br&gt;

&quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New user exceeded new page limit&quot;

Any help on this would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks,
[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:34, 12 October 2026 (UTC)

:There are restrictions on new accounts. We could do two things: I personally recommend that you create it in your userspace and build it up to be ready for primetime and then it can be moved or I could make a blank page and you can edit it from there. I'm willing to do that, but think it's not the best method. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:09, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::No worries, I'll just put it in my userspace; Thanks for the help! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 19:08, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], on  23:39, 15 March 2020, I posted a similar request &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#trying to create a page in my user space here|&lt;bdi&gt;trying to create a page in my user space here&lt;/bdi&gt;]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'' That was my first successful &quot;edit&quot; to this project. It took awhile to get my page established, and I believe but have not checked recently that it is still here. However, unlike my experience with another wiki project I never felt I could actually contribute here and as a result my contributions have been far and few between.
::I hope @ [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] will have better luck, but I sometimes wonder if all these bureaucratic restrictions , that create a lot  of work  for admins, are actually beneficial  for  this wiki as a whole. Just my $.02 [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:26, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
:::Temporary account users are welcome and we appreciate you wanting to add to the educational resources, but as you can imagine, we need to have some restrictions on accounts. It's hard to have perfect settings for these. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:41, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for replying @Koavf. I guess what I was trying to probe is why Wikiversity makes it so difficult for new users to start contributing here.  I have not been &quot;editing&quot; at the English Wikipedia for years, but I believe one can create a new page  without having to post a request at the Village Pump or at the admin noticeboard? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2026 (UTC)
:::::Per [[w:Wikipedia:User groups]]: &quot;Several actions on the English Wikipedia (such as article creation) are restricted to user accounts that have made at least ''10 edits'' to the English Wikipedia '''and''' after ''4 days'' have passed since the time of their first edit.&quot; Wikiversity is not much different from Wikipedia in this regard. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:37, 15 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>qn2lqk28xyka9t4pnmqxe7a0hwg9crl</sha1>
    </revision>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Request for protection of User:Bobiversity */ archive to [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action/Archive/31#Request for protection of User:Bobiversity]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Unable to Create Page (?) ==
Hi, I'm trying to create a page: [[Magnetoencephalography (MEG)]]. &lt;/br&gt;

When I attempt to create it however, it does not allow me, spitting the following message: &lt;/br&gt;

&quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New user exceeded new page limit&quot;

Any help on this would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks,
[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:34, 12 October 2026 (UTC)

:There are restrictions on new accounts. We could do two things: I personally recommend that you create it in your userspace and build it up to be ready for primetime and then it can be moved or I could make a blank page and you can edit it from there. I'm willing to do that, but think it's not the best method. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:09, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::No worries, I'll just put it in my userspace; Thanks for the help! [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 19:08, 13 October 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]], on  23:39, 15 March 2020, I posted a similar request &lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#trying to create a page in my user space here|&lt;bdi&gt;trying to create a page in my user space here&lt;/bdi&gt;]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;.'' That was my first successful &quot;edit&quot; to this project. It took awhile to get my page established, and I believe but have not checked recently that it is still here. However, unlike my experience with another wiki project I never felt I could actually contribute here and as a result my contributions have been far and few between.
::I hope @ [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] will have better luck, but I sometimes wonder if all these bureaucratic restrictions , that create a lot  of work  for admins, are actually beneficial  for  this wiki as a whole. Just my $.02 [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:26, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
:::Temporary account users are welcome and we appreciate you wanting to add to the educational resources, but as you can imagine, we need to have some restrictions on accounts. It's hard to have perfect settings for these. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:41, 14 October 2026 (UTC)
::::Thanks for replying @Koavf. I guess what I was trying to probe is why Wikiversity makes it so difficult for new users to start contributing here.  I have not been &quot;editing&quot; at the English Wikipedia for years, but I believe one can create a new page  without having to post a request at the Village Pump or at the admin noticeboard? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2026 (UTC)
:::::Per [[w:Wikipedia:User groups]]: &quot;Several actions on the English Wikipedia (such as article creation) are restricted to user accounts that have made at least ''10 edits'' to the English Wikipedia '''and''' after ''4 days'' have passed since the time of their first edit.&quot; Wikiversity is not much different from Wikipedia in this regard. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:37, 15 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ozrxu1zjzx9k6l7o0l1c09n08zqbmk3</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United States Law</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>152161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2842599</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Lp0 on fire</username>
        <id>3043221</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove cross-wiki spam</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="10089" sha1="fxnhuc1gjlmqbh1qlvpt9l0rzbnmrvf" xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;width:100%; margin-bottom: .6em; -moz-border-radius: 4px; text-align:center; border: 1px solid #50A6C2; background-color:#F0F8FF;{{Text default color}}; padding: .6em .6em .6em .6em;&quot; 
| style=&quot;width:100px&quot; | [[File:Constitution of the United States - DPLA - 9ca804144bd5965e992ae3528bc3c6a3 (page 1).jpg|100px|frameless]]
|
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:200%;border:none;margin: 0;padding:.1em;color:#000&quot;&gt;'''United States Law Learning Project'''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;top:0.2em;font-size:150%&quot;&gt;part of the [[School:Law|'''School of Law''']]&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;width:100px&quot; | [[File:Scale of justice 2.svg|75px|frameless]]
|
|}

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:99%; background-color:#f9f9ff;{{Text default color}};margin-bottom:10px;margin-top:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;padding:3px; background:#aaccff;{{Text default color}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;&quot;&gt;Welcome&lt;/h2 &gt;
A very warm welcome to the {{w|United States Law}} Learning Project! The legal system of the United States of America is a complex one with two major levels, namely the federal and state levels. The training of lawyers is controlled by the {{w|American Bar Association}} (ABA). Lawyers advise their clients on legal matters including writing contracts, interpreting the law, and representing them in court.

Another aspect of US law is that it also split into civil and criminal law. Both may involve courts, but the rules are different. In a court trial, criminal cases are more likely to involve juries than civil cases. There are two basic differences between civil and criminal cases:  
# Civil cases are decided on the weight of the evidence. Criminal cases require proof beyond {{w|reasonable doubt}}.  
# Civil cases involving a jury require a majority. Criminal cases require a unanimous decision.  

An example of the difference between the two is the civil suit brought against the {{w|Federal Bureau of Investigation}} (FBI) for their role in the assassination of {{w|Martin Luther King, Jr.}}:  the family succeeded because a majority of the jurors concluded that the weight of the evidence favored the family. A criminal procedure did not come to trial, presumably because the prosecutors felt that the evidence was not sufficient to obtain a unanimous judgment beyond reasonable doubt that certain FBI agents were complicit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author={{w|William Francis Pepper|Pepper, William F.}} | year=1995 | title=Orders to Kill: The truth behind the murder of Martin Luther King, Jr. |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-67394-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Any questions about following the US Constitution can be presented to the {{w|Supreme Court}} whose nine judges can deem a law or action unconstitutional. If deemed such it is impossible to reinstated unless the Supreme Court revokes its judgement or it is overturned by a subsequent constitutional amendment.

This Project focusses on US Law and covers topics at a college level but it is not a formal qualification. The Project is designed to provide an informal learning experience, which may provide knowledge and skills that can be used elsewhere.

The Project comprises a number of units, each of which covers a separate area of US Law. As tempting as it might be to compare this with the structure of a formal law degree, Wikiversity does not allocate &quot;credits&quot; or &quot;points&quot; to any of the units. Each unit contains a number of smaller subunits and is designed to be studied alongside a relevant textbook from Wikibooks, one of the partner websites of Wikiversity. The links for the textbooks can be found at the start of each unit. Each unit outline will also list additional recommended texts, articles and other materials, which are not compulsory but intended for deeper independent study. Throughout each unit there will be opportunities in the form of quizzes and short essays to enable you to reflect on the material and see how much you understand. There is a larger quiz at the end of the unit, which you can repeat as any times as you wish until you are confident of your understanding of the material. Additionally, there are a number of case studies and suggested essays to complement your studies as well as recommendations for further reading.
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;{{Text default color}};margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;padding:3px; background:#aaccff;{{Text default color}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;&quot;&gt;Project summary&lt;/h2 &gt;
* '''Project code:''' United States Law
* '''Prerequisites:''' None
* '''Time investment:''' 1 calendar year
* '''Assessment suggestions:''' 
** A series of quizzes in lieu of examinations on various aspects of United States Law including relevant case law: '''40%'''&lt;!--estimated guess--&gt;
** A series of detailed essays written as journal articles for peer-reviewing: '''40%'''&lt;!--estimated guess--&gt;
** A multi-part personal development portfolio: '''20%'''&lt;!--estimated guess--&gt;
* '''[[WV:Major portals|Portal]]:''' [[Portal:Humanities|Humanities]]
* '''[[WV:Schools|School]]:''' [[School:Law|Law]]
* '''Level:''' Introductory—Advanced
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;{{Text default color}};margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;padding:3px; background:#aaccff;{{Text default color}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;&quot;&gt;Content summary&lt;/h2 &gt;
* In this Learning Project, participants will learn about the history and development of United States Law from the 18th century to the modern era, with a particular focus on areas that are usually part of law degrees.

* One of the goals of this project is to utilise free materials, so the learner does not have to pay expensive subscriptions. This will be achieved by the use of a series of free textbooks (from Wikibooks), original source material for statutes and cases, a series of [[Wikiversity Law Reports]], the development of a [[Wikiversity Law Review]], quizzes and other freely available resources.

* It will be noted that purely academic study is insufficient in preparing for legal practice and thus there will be suggested tools to enable some of these aspects. The limitations of online courses like this inhibit more active participation such as the classical skill of {{w|moot court}} but there will be recommendations for overcoming these obstacles.
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;{{Text default color}};margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;padding:3px; background:#aaccff;{{Text default color}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;&quot;&gt;Goals&lt;/h2 &gt;
* Study and understand the origins of United States Law;
* Examine the current state of United States Law;
* Suggest tools and methods for participants to improve their practical skills.
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;{{Text default color}};margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;padding:3px; background:#aaccff;{{Text default color}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;&quot;&gt;Resources&lt;/h2&gt;
{{center|'''&lt;big&gt;[[/Introduction/]]&lt;/big&gt;'''&lt;br&gt;[[/History/]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;#9642;&amp;nbsp;[[/Reform/]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;#9642;&amp;nbsp;[[/System/]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;#9642;&amp;nbsp;[[/Legal Writing/]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;#9642;&amp;nbsp;[[/First Year Guide/]]}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Comparative law and justice/United States]]
* [[/Civil Procedure/]] ([[:b:US Civil Procedure|Wikibook]])
* [[/Constitutional/]]
* [[/Contract/]] ([[:b:US Contract Law|Wikibook]])
* [[/Copyright/]] ([[:b:US Copyright Law|Wikibook]])
* [[/Corporate/]] ([[:b:US Corporate Law|Wikibook]])
* [[/Criminal/]] ([[:b:US Criminal Law|Wikibook]])
* [[/Education/]]
* [[/Evidence/]] ([[:b:Federal Rules of Evidence|Wikibook]])
* [[/Patents/]] ([[:b:US Patent Law|Wikibook]])
* [[/Property/]] ([[:b:US Property Law|Wikibook]])
* [[/Tort/]] ([[:b:US Tort Law|Wikibook]])
* [[/Trusts and Estates/]] ([[:b:US Trusts and Estates Law|Wikibook]])
* [[Pro se legal representation]]
{{col-break}}
;Supplementary
* [[/Ethics/]]
* [[/Bibliography/]]
** [[/Bibliography/Authors|Authors]]
* [[Wikiversity Law Reports]]
** [[/Case List/]]
* [[/Statute List/]]
* [[Wikiversity Law Review]]
{{col-end}}
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;{{Text default color}};margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;padding:3px; background:#aaccff;{{Text default color}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;&quot;&gt;[[Portal:Learning Projects#Learning Groups|Active participants]]&lt;/h2 &gt;
* {{u|Green Giant}}
* {{u|Jadecoppieters}}
* &lt;!--Add your signature here using {{u|Username}}--&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;{{Text default color}};margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;padding:3px; background:#aaccff;{{Text default color}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;&quot;&gt;Notes&lt;/h2 &gt;
{{Reflist}}
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:United States Law| ]]
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== '''Digital Artists Wiki Project''' Assignment ==

=== Assignment Description ===
For this assignment, you will write and publish a wiki-style article about a digital artist/technology of your choice on Wikiversity.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.techxlab.org/solutions/wikimedia-foundation-wikiversity&lt;/ref&gt; You should begin by finding an article stub that needs to be developed or identifying a potential artist whose work is not featured currently. Remember that you are writing for the Wikiversity community and your article will be judged and graded on Wikipedia publishing standards.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Instructions ==
'''1. Create a user Profile here:'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Special:CreateAccount]]&lt;br&gt;
User Guidelines can be found here: [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''2. Choose a Topic'''&lt;br&gt;
You may choose any topic related to digital art and technology from any time period. Try to find a topic that's important to you and not already featured on wikipedia. In case you have difficulties finding a topic, please feel free to consult with your instructor.&lt;br&gt;

Please note that each student must choose a unique topic.

Once you have selected a digital artist, post your artist’s name along with your name under the Spring 2026 header. Please check that no one else has elected to work on the same artists.
Example:
&lt;pre&gt;* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/YOUR PAGE TITLE]]&lt;/pre&gt;
for example
&lt;pre&gt;* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal]]&lt;/pre&gt; produces:
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]]  01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]]


'''3. OR Create your page using the following:'''
&lt;inputbox&gt;
type=create
width=80
preload={{FULLPAGENAME}}/Template
editintro=
buttonlabel=Create project subpage
searchbuttonlabel=
break=no
prefix={{FULLPAGENAME}}/
placeholder=enter title here

&lt;/inputbox&gt;&lt;br&gt;
This template can help get you started: [[Digital_Media_Concepts/Template|Template]]


== Links ==
A wikilink (or internal link) links a page to another page within English Wikipedia. In wikitext, links are enclosed in double square brackets like this:
&lt;pre&gt;[[abc]]&lt;/pre&gt; is seen as [[abc]]

External links use absolute URLs to link directly to any web page. External links are enclosed in single square brackets (rather than double brackets as with internal links), with the optional link text separated from the URL by a space 
&lt;pre&gt;[http://www.example.org/ link text]&lt;/pre&gt; will be rendered as: [http://www.example.org/ link text]

When no link text is specified, external links appear numbered: 
&lt;pre&gt;[http://www.example.org/some-other-page]&lt;/pre&gt; becomes: [http://www.example.org/some-other-page]

Links with no square brackets display in their entirety
&lt;pre&gt;http://www.example.org/&lt;/pre&gt;
displays as http://www.example.org

=== Fall 2026 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Mr. Screw News|Mr. Screw News]] ([[User talk:Mr. Screw News|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mr. Screw News|contribs]]) 17:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Peer to Peer Online Education Interactions ]]
* [[User:Hadfaiez|Hadfaiez]] ([[User talk:Hadfaiez|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hadfaiez|contribs]]) 04:59, 15 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking]]
* [[User:Katelyn Thilak|Katelyn Thilak]] ([[User talk:Katelyn Thilak|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Katelyn Thilak|contribs]]) 08:00, 18 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital_Media_Concepts/Joy_Buolamwini_and_Facial_Analysis_Bias]]
* [[User:MLResearchEngineer|Andy Chin]] ([[User talk:AndyChin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AndyChin|contribs]]) [[Digital Media Concepts/Claude Code in Software Development]]
* [[User:JK010707|JK010707]] ([[User talk:JK010707|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JK010707|contribs]]) 18:39, 25 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Nemesis System and Warner Bros. Patent]]

{{collapse bottom}}

=== Spring 2026 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Jaylor22|Jaylor22]] ([[User talk:Jaylor22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jaylor22|contribs]]) 22:52, 7 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Use of CGI in Motion Picture Film How to Train Your Dragon]]
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 02:21, 4 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/TikTok and Its Impact on Self-Esteem]]
* [[User:Ksafa1|Ksafa1]] ([[User talk:Ksafa1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ksafa1|contribs]]) 05:29, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Rise of Digital Music Therapy Apps and Teen Mental Health]]
* [[User:Mina Safa|Mina Safa]] ([[User talk:Mina Safa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mina Safa|contribs]]) 03:59, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Media Concepts/Algorithmic Mood Feeds]]
* [[User:Aarna.Makam|Aarna.Makam]] ([[User talk:Aarna.Makam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aarna.Makam|contribs]]) 00:08, 31 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Concerts &amp; Hologram-Style Live Events]]
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 18:27, 29 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/New StudyFetch]]
* [[User:Vania Lat|Vania Lat]] ([[User talk:Vania Lat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vania Lat|contribs]]) 20:33, 9 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technological Landscape of Esports]]
* [[User:SarahLuber|SarahLuber]] ([[User talk:SarahLuber|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SarahLuber|contribs]]) 20:59, 9 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Notch's history In Games]]
* [[User:5heep.doggydog|5heep.doggydog]] ([[User talk:5heep.doggydog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/5heep.doggydog|contribs]]) 16:43, 13 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Radio Telemetry in Bear Conservation]]

* [[User:Qianqian Z|Qianqian Z]] ([[User talk:Qianqian Z|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Qianqian Z|contribs]]) 05:19, 16 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Zhang Yiming and Algorithm-Driven Content Platforms]]

* [[User:EZMedina18|EZMedina18]] ([[User talk:EZMedina18|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EZMedina18|contribs]]) 04:34, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Trackman Golf Launch Monitors]]
* [[User:Triajj|Trianna J.]] ([[User talk:Triajj|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Triajj|contribs]]) 23:26, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Marketing Strategies in K-Pop]]
* [[User:Qiurick|Qiurick]] ([[User talk:Qiurick|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Qiurick|contribs]]) 20:50, 28 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Simon Collins-Laflamme]]
* [[User:SwarG07|SwarG07]] ([[User talk:SwarG07|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SwarG07|contribs]]) 06:01, 30 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Kanye West and the Living Album Concept]]
* [[User:Joaquin A Quinonez|Joaquin A Quinonez]] ([[User talk:Joaquin A Quinonez|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Joaquin A Quinonez|contribs]]) 20:25, 30 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Environmental storytelling in Xenoblade Chronicles]]
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Fall 2025 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}

*  [[User:Yusuf152|Yusuf152] ([[User talk:Yusuf152|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yusuf152|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Social Media Technology and the Arab Spring]]

* [[User:Riaz23413|Riaz23413]] ([[User talk:Riaz23413|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Riaz23413|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Midjourney v6]]*[[User:JSDAID|JSDAID]] ([[User talk:JSDAID|discuss]]  • [[Special:Contributions/JSDAID|contribs]]) 04:00, 26 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Devine Lu Linvega]]
* [[User:SrushDigitalMedia|SrushDigitalMedia]] ([[User talk:SrushDigitalMedia|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SrushDigitalMedia|contribs]]) 00:23, 8 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jessica “Sting” Peterson]]
*[[User:Lsingh29|Lsingh29]] ([[User talk:Lsingh29|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lsingh29|contribs]]) 06:47, 19 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Cultural Impact of Pokémon on Youth]]
* [[User:Fnabong|Fnabong]] ([[User talk:Fnabong|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fnabong|contribs]]) 03:19, 24 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Privacy Plan]]
* [[User:Sharaf Obaid|Sharaf Obaid]] ([[User talk:Sharaf Obaid|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sharaf Obaid|contribs]]) 16:25, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Impact of AI on Social Media]]
* [[User:A.A2711|A.A2711]] ([[User talk:A.A2711|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/A.A2711|contribs]]) 19:15, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Paul Allen's Philanthropic Practices]]
* [[User:AdamFlick18|AdamFlick18]] ([[User talk:AdamFlick18|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AdamFlick18|contribs]]) 06:19, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Automated Industrial Robotics Inc. (AIR)]]
* [[User:Msingh132|Msingh132]] ([[User talk:Msingh132|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Msingh132|contribs]]) 07:23, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The impact of renewable energy on emerging economies]]
* [[User:CleaverCat2|&lt;bdi&gt;CleaverCat2&lt;/bdi&gt;]] ([[User talk:CleaverCat2|discuss]] •  [[Special:Contributions/CleaverCat2|contribs]]) 06:26, 26 October 2025 (UTC) '''[[Digital Media Concepts/Generative AI on Game Development]]'''
* [[User:Wesleyphin|Wesleyphin]] ([[User talk:Wesleyphin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wesleyphin|contribs]]) 23:04, 26 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sora 2]]
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Spring 2025 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Gsingh598|Gsingh598]] ([[User talk:Gsingh598|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gsingh598|contribs]]) 18:09, 10 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Refik Anadol: Blending Data and Art Through Machine Learning]]
* [[User:Safaiqbal11|Safaiqbal11]] ([[User talk:Safaiqbal11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Safaiqbal11|contribs]]) 04:58, 17 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Evolution of the iPhone and Its Cultural Impact]]
* [[User:Weswu341|Weswu341]] ([[User talk:Weswu341|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Weswu341|contribs]]) 01:27, 19 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Yucef Merhi]]
* [[User:Mdelacruz7|Mdelacruz7]] ([[User talk:Mdelacruz7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mdelacruz7|contribs]]) 02:32, 25 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Technology and its Influence on Romance.]]
* [[User:Amojado1|Amojado1]] ([[User talk:Amojado1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Amojado1|contribs]]) 22:09, 28 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Samir Vasavada]]
* [[User:TianxinXu0201|TianxinXu0201]] ([[User talk:TianxinXu0201|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TianxinXu0201|contribs]]) 19:15, 29 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Role of Autopilot in Tesla's Robotaxi Plan]]
* [[User:Zsadozai|Zsadozai]] ([[User talk:Zsadozai|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zsadozai|contribs]]) 05:31, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Influence of Live Creators]]
* [[User:Dija8719|Dija8719]] ([[User talk:Dija8719|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dija8719|contribs]]) 06:53, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartphones Impact on Communication]]
* [[User:Ksak2|Ksak2]] ([[User talk:Ksak2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ksak2|contribs]]) 23:49, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Reflection of the Nintendo Wii on the Nintendo Switch]]
* [[User:Nyanoble|Nyanoble]] ([[User talk:Nyanoble|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nyanoble|contribs]]) 00:30, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/ Impact AI has on the job market]]
* [[User:Kjchai1|Kjchai1]] ([[User talk:Kjchai1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kjchai1|contribs]]) 04:00, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Alex Karp's impact on the public view of AI]]
* [[User:Mpiquero1]]  23:07, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Quantum Computing and Information Security]]
* [[User:NoahMacias1|NoahMacias1]] ([[User talk:NoahMacias1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/NoahMacias1|contribs]]) 04:15, 2 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Marvel Rivals vs Overwatch]]
* [[User:Cassidyhalen|Cassidyhalen]] ([[User talk:Cassidyhalen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cassidyhalen|contribs]]) 10:28, 5 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Waymo's impact on the economy]]
* [[User:Glry2ua|Glry2ua]] ([[User talk:Glry2ua|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Glry2ua|contribs]]) 06:50, 27 May 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Counter-Drone Technologies]]

{{collapse bottom}}

=== Fall 2024 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Dawson Travis|Dawson Travis]] ([[User talk:Dawson Travis|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dawson Travis|contribs]]) 20:03, 2 November 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Bruce Laval]]
* [[User:Jillianrae247|Jillianrae247]] ([[User talk:Jillianrae247|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jillianrae247|contribs]]) 06:21, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/David LaRochelle]]
* [[User:Jmartin51|Jmartin51]] ([[User talk:Jmartin51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jmartin51j|contribs]]) 22:46, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Creating Digital Media Concepts/Relationship of GPUs and Bitcoin Mining]]
* [[User:Hero1ghj|Hero1ghj]] ([[User talk:Hero1ghj|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hero1ghj|contribs]]) 01:56, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Fortnite Storyline]]
* [[User:Catalinajordanvillar|Catalinajordanvillar]] ([[User talk:Catalinajordanvillar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Catalinajordanvillar|contribs]]) 06:57, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution Of Disney Animation]]
* [[User:Daid gem|Daid gem]] ([[User talk:Daid gem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Daid gem|contribs]]) 22:35, 25 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Webtoon Adaptations]]
* [[User:Hillary Cheng|Hillary Cheng]] ([[User talk:Hillary Cheng|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hillary Cheng|contribs]]) 18:37, 15 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lane Centering Technology]]
* [[User:Chloecastellana|Chloecastellana]] ([[User talk:Chloecastellana|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chloecastellana|contribs]]) 23:04, 19 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jack Ma]]
* [[User:Durontop7|Durontop7]] ([[User talk:Durontop7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Durontop7|contribs]]) 02:11, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Getting Over It with Bennett Foddy]]
* [[User:Megamatt02001|Megamatt02001]] ([[User talk:Megamatt02001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Megamatt02001|contribs]]) 13:05, 28 October 2024 (UTC) [[Hideo Kojima's Podcast &quot;Brain Structure&quot;]]
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Spring 2024 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 20:28, 22 April 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Can't Help Myself Robot]]
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 23:24, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Shopping]]
* [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 03:44, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI’s Impact on Art]]
* [[User:Diegou04|Diegou04]] ([[User talk:Diegou04|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Diegou04|contribs]]) 00:39, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Vision Pro Environmental Considerations ]]
* [[User:Omegajame456|Omegajame456]] ([[User talk:Omegajame456|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omegajame456|contribs]]) 10:40, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smart Roads]]
* [[User:Ashlyn45|Ashlyn45]] ([[User talk:Ashlyn45|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ashlyn45|contribs]]) 06:50, 22 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Khan Academy Breakthrough]]
* [[User:Myat K.S|Myat K.S]] ([[User talk:Myat K.S|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Myat K.S|contribs]]) 10:10, 7 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/BILL GATES (William Henry Gates III)]]
* [[User:Yuyani0915|Yuyani0915]] ([[User talk:Yuyani0915|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yuyani0915|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Gaming Technology]]
* [[User:RobbyDAID|RobbyDAID]] ([[User talk:RobbyDAID|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RobbyDAID|contribs]]) 19:23, 19 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lost Cities]]
* [[User:Isaiah Guerrero|Isaiah Guerrero]] ([[User talk:Isaiah Guerrero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Isaiah Guerrero|contribs]]) 04:15, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nano Bots and CO2]]
* [[User:Xavierrrrrrr01|Xavierrrrrrr01]] ([[User talk:Xavierrrrrrr01|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xavierrrrrrr01|contribs]]) 19:20, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Uses of the Raspberry Pi]]
* [[User:Luna, D Media|Luna, D Media]] ([[User talk:Luna, D Media|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Luna, D Media|contribs]]) 02:09, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Science S.T.E.M. Influencers]]
* [[User:Yueminl|Yueminl]] ([[User talk:Yueminl|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yueminl|contribs]]) 22:39, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Information Cocoons Effect]]
* [[User:Tarunya Dharma|Tarunya Dharma]] ([[User talk:Tarunya Dharma|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tarunya Dharma|contribs]]) 01:59, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI Human Clones]]
* [[User:GCanilao|GCanilao]] ([[User talk:GCanilao|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GCanilao|contribs]]) 05:56, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution of &quot;Bits&quot; in Game Graphics]]
* [[User:Helldivers.2|Helldivers.2]] ([[User talk:Helldivers.2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Helldivers.2|contribs]]) 17:12, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Helldivers 2 Impact on Gaming Community]]
* [[User:Arbalest zy|Arbalest zy]] ([[User talk:Arbalest zy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arbalest zy|contribs]]) 03:45, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Proprietary PS Vita memory card]]
* [[User:RaymondHuang10|RaymondHuang10]] ([[User talk:RaymondHuang10|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RaymondHuang10|contribs]]) 11:59, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Keshi]]
* [[User:Weijian Chen|Weijian Chen]] ([[User talk:Weijian Chen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Weijian Chen|contribs]]) 21:17, 28 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/CPU Evolution]]
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=== Fall 2023 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 06:23, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Autism (ASD) &amp; Social Media]]
* -~--([Digital Media Concepts/Transforming Agriculture: A Case Study on Pakistan|))
* [[User:Garylongington|Garylongington]] ([[User talk:Garylongington|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Garylongington|contribs]]) 21:04, 22 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Slender: The Eight Pages]]
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 16:06, 6 June 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal Example]]
* [[User:Archelone|Archelone]] ([[User talk:Archelone|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Archelone|contribs]]) 01:32, 16 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Representation in Baldur's Gate 3]]
* [[User:Gauze0001|Gauze0001]] ([[User talk:Gauze0001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gauze0001|contribs]]) 01:11, 17 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Cameron's World]]
* [[User:Owynmlee|Owynmlee]] ([[User talk:Owynmlee|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Owynmlee|contribs]]) 01:11, 18 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Shrinkwrapping]]
* [[User:Atnguyen12|Atnguyen12]] ([[User talk:Atnguyen12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Atnguyen12|contribs]]) 05:54, 21 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wonderlab]]
* [[User:BinhNguyenSKMT|BinhNguyenSKMT]] ([[User talk:BinhNguyenSKMT|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/BinhNguyenSKMT|contribs]]) 01:14, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Education with Generative AI]]
* [[User:Jonnmac|Jonnmac]] ([[User talk:Jonnmac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jonnmac|contribs]]) 02:50, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2 Culture]]
* [[Digital Media Concepts/Transportation Technologies]]
* [[User:Kalvabb|Kalvabb]] ([[User talk:Kalvabb|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/Kalvabb|contribs]]) 10:58, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Writing and Artificial Intelligence]]
* [[User:Karan 035|Karan 035]] ([[User talk:Karan 035|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Karan 035|contribs]]) 02:07, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve jobs and his Leadership styles]]
* [[User:Elyssamlee|Elyssamlee]] ([[User talk:Elyssamlee|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Elyssamlee|contribs]]) 02:53, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve Lacy]]
* [[User:Daniel Lopezzz|Daniel Lopezzz]] ([[User talk:Daniel Lopezzz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Daniel Lopezzz|contribs]]) 23:40, 19 November 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Xbox Technological Advances]]
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=== Spring 2022 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 19:27, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal 3]]
* [[User:Logain.Abd|Logain.Abd]] ([[User talk:Logain.Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Logain.Abd|contribs]]) 16:55, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Prosthetic Body Parts]]
* [[User:Ceruleansnake|Ceruleansnake]] ([[User talk:Ceruleansnake|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ceruleansnake|contribs]]) 19:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/ENA (web series)]]
* [[User:SPiedyW5|SPiedyW5]] ([[User talk:SPiedyW5|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SPiedyW5|contribs]]) 19:33, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Streaming Platforms]]
* [[User:AkhilKandkur|AkhilKandkur]] ([[User talk:AkhilKandkur|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AkhilKandkur|contribs]]) 19:34, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/DVD-Video]]
* [[User:Adamgmz|Adamgmz]] ([[User talk:Adamgmz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adamgmz|contribs]]) 19:47, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Physically Based Rendering]]
* [[User:ZhuoL|ZhuoL]] ([[User talk:ZhuoL|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ZhuoL|contribs]]) 20:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Audio Editing]]
* [[User:WanderingWalruses|WanderingWalruses]] ([[User talk:WanderingWalruses|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/WanderingWalruses|contribs]]) 20:32, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Youtube Monetization]]
* [[User:Anammughal|Anammughal]] ([[User talk:Anammughal|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Anammughal|contribs]]) 20:36, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare]]
* [[User:Vlee88|Vlee88]] ([[User talk:Vlee88|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vlee88|contribs]]) 22:16, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wacom/digital tablets]]
* [[User:TZrng8|TZrng8]] ([[User talk:TZrng8|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TZrng8|contribs]]) 20:07, 25 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Reality]]
* [[User:Nooshas|Nooshas]] ([[User talk:Nooshas|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nooshas|contribs]]) 04:57, 28 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Eduardo Saverin]]
* [[User:Rjoyner1|Rjoyner1]] ([[User talk:Rjoyner1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rjoyner1|contribs]]) 19:26, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Higher Learning Podacast]]
* [[User:Yaboiversity|Yaboiversity]] ([[User talk:Yaboiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yaboiversity|contribs]]) 19:36, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ceramic 3D Printers]]
* [[User:Ayeitsemmie|Ayeitsemmie]] ([[User talk:Ayeitsemmie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ayeitsemmie|contribs]]) 20:35, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technology Used In “Rick and Morty”]]
* [[User:Navveerbhangal|Navveerbhangal]] ([[User talk:Navveerbhangal|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Navveerbhangal|contribs]]) 19:56, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Lex Fridman]]
* [[User:Mayapose|Mayapose]] ([[User talk:Mayapose|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mayapose|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hedy Lamarr]]
* [[User:Ohlonestudengo12|Ohlonestudengo12]] ([[User talk:Ohlonestudengo12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ohlonestudengo12|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple AirTag]]
* [[User:Aayyaz|Aayyaz]] ([[User talk:Aayyaz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aayyaz|contribs]]) 20:08, 3 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Speech Recognition]]
*  [[User:Brana1|Brana1]] ([[User talk:Brana1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Brana1|contribs]]) 06:56, 9 March 2022 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sony Playstation]]
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=== Fall 2021 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Five Nights at Freddy's]]
* [[User:Zkeeler1|Zkeeler1]] ([[User talk:Zkeeler1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zkeeler1|contribs]]) 01:28, 22 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The process of Encryption]]
* [[User:Ronit Dhir|Ronit Dhir]] ([[User talk:Ronit Dhir|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ronit Dhir|contribs]]) 07:15, 14 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Shantanu Narayen]]
* [[User:Joachanz|Joachanz]] ([[User talk:Joachanz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Joachanz|contribs]]) 20:32, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games Gender Discrimination Controversy]]
* [[User:SauerPatch|SauerPatch]] ([[User talk:SauerPatch|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SauerPatch|contribs]]) 20:35, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Bitcoin]]
* [[User:Vy Trieu|Vy Trieu]] ([[User talk:Vy Trieu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vy Trieu|contribs]]) 20:47, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Influencer]]
* [[User:GEEGOLLYY|GEEGOLLYY]] ([[User talk:GEEGOLLYY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GEEGOLLYY|contribs]]) 21:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Valorant]]
* [[User:Cheesze|Cheesze]] ([[User talk:Cheesze|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cheesze|contribs]]) 21:10, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Squid Game S1E6: Gganbu]]
* [[User:PcPeou1|PcPeou1]] ([[User talk:PcPeou1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PcPeou1|contribs]]) 21:19, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown]]
* [[User:Ralph Lagmay|Ralph Lagmay]] ([[User talk:Ralph Lagmay|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ralph Lagmay|contribs]]) 19:24, 3 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Beeple]]
* [[User:Nicole Wood|Nicole Wood]] ([[User talk:Nicole Wood|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nicole Wood]]) 23:29, 5 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sam Does Arts]]
* [[User:Choopa land|Choopa land]] ([[User talk:Choopa land|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Choopa land|contribs]]) 21:31, 7 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sudha Murty]]
* [[User:Alex Walsh|Alex Walsh]] ([[User talk:Alex Walsh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alex Walsh|contribs]]) 07:35, 9 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Twitch Hate Raids]]
* [[User:Just TMar|Just TMar]] ([[User talk:Just TMar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Just TMar|contribs]]) 01:54, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Doxing]]
* [[User:Ghiyasat|Ghiyasat]] ([[User talk:Ghiyasat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ghiyasat|contribs]]) 17:28, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Polygraph]]
* [[User:Snuckles49|Snuckles49]] ([[User talk:Snuckles49|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Snuckles49|contribs]]) 00:43, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/BattlEye Anti-Cheat]]
* [[User:Nino02|Nino02]] ([[User talk:Nino02|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nino02|contribs]]) (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Video Streaming Services]]
* [[User:Ishadamle|Ishadamle]] ([[User talk:Ishadamle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ishadamle|contribs]]) 16:56, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Aistė Stancikaitė]]
* [[User:Zainab Attarwala|Zainab Attarwala]] ([[User talk:Zainab Attarwala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zainab Attarwala|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tokyo Medical University for Rejected Woman]]
* [[User:Yusef510|Yusef510]] ([[User talk:Yusef510|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yusef510|contribs]]) 21:26, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Women In Esports]]
* [[User:SLBriscoe|SLBriscoe]] ([[User talk:SLBriscoe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SLBriscoe|contribs]]) 21:36, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dark Souls III]]
* [[User:Phonemyat238|Phonemyat238]] ([[User talk:Phonemyat238|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Phonemyat238|contribs]]) 23:47, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dota 2 Esport]]
* [[User:JBauer4|JBauer4]] ([[User talk:JBauer4|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JBauer4|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New World (game)]]
* [[User:Rburnham1740|Rburnham1740]] ([[User talk:Rburnham1740|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rburnham1740|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Call Of Duty: Warzone]]
* [[User:HellaCinema|HellaCinema]] ([[User talk:HellaCinema|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HellaCinema|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New Age Cinema - Film Cinematography]]
* [[User:Tiwarisushant|Tiwarisushant]] ([[User talk:Tiwarisushant|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tiwarisushant|contribs]]) 23:58, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI - Uses and Importance]]
* [[User:JoseNavarro15|JoseNavarro15]] ([[User talk:JoseNavarro15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JoseNavarro15|contribs]]) 05:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Space X]]

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=== Fall 2020 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Daniyal.ak27|Daniyal.ak27]] ([[User talk:Daniyal.ak27|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Daniyal.ak27|contribs]]) 21:42, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Neuralink/]]
* [[User:Alisonmp|Alisonmp]] ([[User talk:Alisonmp|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alisonmp|contribs]]) 21:41, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Video Streaming Services/]]
* [[Special:Contributions/2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D]] ([[User talk:2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|discuss]]) 21:40, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Metroidvania/]]
* [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 03:26, 14 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Zoom Video Communications/]]
* [[User:Nidhisgupta|Nidhisgupta]] ([[User talk:Nidhisgupta|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nidhisgupta|contribs]]) 23:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Cyber Crimes/]]
* [[User:Melissalop551|Melissalop551]] ([[User talk:Melissalop551|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Melissalop551|contribs]]) 23:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Iphone X (Face ID)/]]
* [[User:Navink100|Navink100]] ([[User talk:Navink100|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Navink100|contribs]]) 20:03, 8 October 2020 (UTC) [[/The Evolution of Digital Scouting in the NBA/]]
* [[User:Rthawani2|Rthawani2]] ([[User talk:Rthawani2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rthawani2|contribs]]) 22:35, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/LD, 2D, SD, 3D, HD, 4D, 4K, 8K/]]
* [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 21:13, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Tesla Inc./]] 
* [[User:MalakaiCaro|MalakaiCaro]] ([[User talk:MalakaiCaro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MalakaiCaro|contribs]]) 21:03, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Apple CarPlay/]]
* [[User:Jb000ts|Jb000ts]] ([[User talk:Jb000ts|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jb000ts|contribs]]) 20:46, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Porsche Taycan/]]
* [[User:Simplyktp|Simplyktp]] ([[User talk:Simplyktp|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Simplyktp|contribs]]) 00:54, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Animal Crossing: New Horizons/]]
* [[User:Ankith Reddy Alwa|Ankith Reddy Alwa]] ([[User talk:Ankith Reddy Alwa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ankith Reddy Alwa|contribs]]) 20:14, 1 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Narayana Murthy/]]
* [[User:MoisesMorales04|MoisesMorales04]] ([[User talk:MoisesMorales04|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MoisesMorales04|contribs]]) 23:23, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Adaptive Cruise Control/]]
* [[User:Rhummdan|Rhummdan]] ([[User talk:Rhummdan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rhummdan|contribs]]) 21:45, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/NBA 2K/]]
* [[User:Yiyi799|Yiyi799]] ([[User talk:Yiyi799|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yiyi799|contribs]]) 20:36, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Snapchat Lenses/]]
* [[User:Oaramirez780|Oaramirez780]] ([[User talk:Oaramirez780|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Oaramirez780|contribs]]) 20:17, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Image Comics/]]
* [[User:Coleslamfreckle|Coleslamfreckle]] ([[User talk:Coleslamfreckle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Coleslamfreckle|contribs]]) 19:36, 23 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Linux Beta/]]
* [[User:Shaikhhiba|Shaikhhiba]] ([[User talk:Shaikhhiba|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shaikhhiba|contribs]]) 02:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Cancel Culture/]]
* [[User:444juptr|444juptr]] ([[User talk:444juptr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/444juptr|contribs]]) 20:33, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Otaku Life/]]
*[[User:Shruthi2001|Shruthi2001]] ([[User talk:Shruthi2001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shruthi2001|contribs]]) 20:40, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Social Media Effect on Diet/]]
* [[User:Vtran50|Vtran50]] ([[User talk:Vtran50|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vtran50|contribs]]) 20:51, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Slander/]]
* [[User:JayceeLorenzo|JayceeLorenzo]] ([[User talk:JayceeLorenzo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JayceeLorenzo|contribs]]) 21:24, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT)/]]
* [[User:IowaneNoka|IowaneNoka]] ([[User talk:IowaneNoka|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IowaneNoka|contribs]]) 03:12, 10 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call Of Duty:Modern Warfare (2019)/]]
* [[User:Kban2001|Kban2001]] ([[User talk:Kban2001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kban2001|contribs]]) 16:11, 12 October 2020 (UTC) [[/ARK: Survival Evolved/]]
* [[User:Christiand28|Christiand28]] ([[User talk:Christiand28|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Christiand28|contribs]]) 02:21, 13 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty:Black Ops 2/]]
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=== Spring 2020 ===

{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Postmodern Jukebox]]
* [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 23:16, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking the Fourth Wall]]
* [[User:PlasticOrPapper|PlasticOrPapper]] ([[User talk:PlasticOrPapper|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PlasticOrPapper|contribs]]) 23:14, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege]]
* [[User:Miranda Tapioca|Miranda Tapioca]] ([[User talk:Miranda Tapioca|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Miranda Tapioca|contribs]]) 23:04, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Blizzard Entertaiment]]
* [[User:Christinuh|Christinuh]] ([[User talk:Christinuh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Christinuh|contribs]]) 23:07, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking News on Twitter]]
* [[User:Emartinez40|Emartinez40]] ([[User talk:Emartinez40|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Emartinez40|contribs]]) 23:09, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Witcher (Game Series)]]
* [[User:MarkxG|MarkxG]] ([[User talk:MarkxG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarkxG|contribs]]) 23:26, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Reddit]]
* [[User:Dmusselwhite1|Dmusselwhite1]] ([[User talk:Dmusselwhite1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dmusselwhite1|contribs]]) 23:15, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI]]
* [[User:Ericahy|Ericahy]] ([[User talk:Ericahy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ericahy|contribs]]) 23:17, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Siri]]
* [[User:Aphon17|Aphon17]] ([[User talk:Aphon17|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aphon17|contribs]]) 23:23, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Inside (video game)]]
* [[User:Mpaing2|Mpaing2]] ([[User talk:Mpaing2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mpaing2|contribs]]) 22:15, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Pencil]]
* [[User:TakeCare2021|TakeCare2021]] ([[User talk:TakeCare2021|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TakeCare2021|contribs]]) 22:52, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Take Care (Album)]]
* [[User:DixonCider1331|DixonCider1331]] ([[User talk:DixonCider1331|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DixonCider1331|contribs]]) 22:55, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games]]
* [[User:John.rod22|John.rod22]] ([[User talk:John.rod22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/John.rod22|contribs]]) 23:01, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Grand Theft Auto V]]
* [[User:Ankits2001|Ankits2001]] ([[User talk:Ankits2001|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ankits2001|contribs]]) 23:06, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPhone 4s (Siri)]]
* [[User:MichaelP75075|MichaelP75075]] ([[User talk:MichaelP75075|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MichaelP75075|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Black Mesa]]
* [[User:Kfernes1|Kfernes1]] ([[User talk:Kfernes1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kfernes1|contribs]]) 22:38, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Joe Rogan Experience]]
* [[Special:Contributions/207.62.190.33|207.62.190.33]] ([[User talk:207.62.190.33|discuss]]) 23:42, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tinder]]
* [[User:Atul.mav|Atul.mav]] ([[User talk:Atul.mav|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Atul.mav|contribs]]) 17:48, 7 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ralph Lauren]]
* [[User:Namesshaikh|Namesshaikh]] ([[User talk:Namesshaikh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Namesshaikh|contribs]]) 22:19, 9 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CD Projekt Red]]
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=== Fall 2019 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}

* [[User:HPatel40|HPatel40]] ([[User talk:HPatel40|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HPatel40|contribs]]) 19:23, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/5G Technologies]]
* [[User:Hpatel42|Hpatel42]] ([[User talk:Hpatel42|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hpatel42|contribs]]) 19:01, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Larry Page]]
* [[User:CRichards17|CRichards17]] ([[User talk:CRichards17|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CRichards17|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/White Supremacy on the Internet]]
* [[User:Waterbottle50|Waterbottle50]] ([[User talk:Waterbottle50|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Waterbottle50|contribs]]) 19:55, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Color-blind lens/EnChroma]]
* [[User:Mcaya00|Mcaya00]] ([[User talk:Mcaya00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mcaya00|contribs]]) 19:49, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Markus Perrson]]
* [[User:Qinyu Chen|Qinyu Chen]] ([[User talk:Qinyu Chen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Qinyu Chen|contribs]]) 19:36, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/teamLab]]
* [[User:Soyoboy.exe|Soyboy.exe]] ([[User talk:Soyboy.exe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soyboy.exe|contribs]]) 20:04, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch]]
* [[User:Yjiang26|Yjiang26]] ([[User talk:Yjiang26|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yjiang26|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Alipay]]
* [[User:Lmurffrenninger1|Lmurffrenninger1]] ([[User talk:Lmurffrenninger1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lmurffrenninger1|contribs]]) 19:39, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/MagicBands at Disneyland]]
* [[User:Jalvarellos1|Jalvarellos1]] ([[User talk:Jalvarellos1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jalvarellos1|contribs]]) 19:41, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Rocket League]]
* [[Adam3318|Adam3318]] ([[User talk:Adam3318|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam3318|contribs]]) 19:46, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/3D scanning with drones]]
* [[User:SanIam|SanIam]] ([[User talk:SanIam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SanIam|contribs]]) 19:57, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Legend Of Zelda: Breath of the Wild]]
* [[User:Nphan16|Nphan16]] ([[User talk:Nphan16|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nphan16|contribs]]) 20:02, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hannah Alexander]]
* [[User:Vluong6|Vluong6]] ([[User talk:Vluong6|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vluong6|contribs]]) 20:24, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Cyberware]]
* [[User:Philventi|Philventi]] ([[User talk:Philventi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Philventi|contribs]]) 22:33, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPadOS]]
* [[User:Jwendland1|Jwendland1]] ([[User talk:Jwendland1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jwendland1|contribs]]) 19:05, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Infinadeck Omnidirectional Treadmill]]
* [[User:Ranle7|Ranle7]] ([[User talk:Ranle7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ranle7|contribs]]) 19:06, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/osu!]]
* [[User:Andrewyamasaki|Andrewyamasaki]] ([[User talk:Andrewyamasaki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Andrewyamasaki|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Super Smash Bros Ultimate]]
* [[User:Samuel3571|Samuel3571]] ([[User talk:Samuel3571|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel3571|contribs]]) 20:35, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Forensic Technology]]
* [[User:Lmedina19|Lmedina19]] ([[User talk:Lmedina19|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lmedina19|contribs]]) 20:00, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Hayley Kiyoko]]
* [[User:Djh42|Djh42]] ([[User talk:Djh42|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Djh42|contribs]]) 20:25, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch Controller]]
* [[User:CharlieDub|CharlieDub]] ([[User talk:CharlieDub|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CharlieDub|contribs]]) 19:42, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Porsche Ignition]]
* [[User:Erick.Flore|Erick.Flore]] ([[User talk:Erick.Flore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Erick.Flore|contribs]]) 20:40, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The video hosting site BitChute]]
* [[User:Dbarquin1|Dbarquin1]] ([[User talk:Dbarquin1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dbarquin1|contribs]]) 17:28, 27 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Custom Built Computer]]
* [[User:Spcharc|Spcharc]] ([[User talk:Spcharc|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Spcharc|contribs]]) 18:07, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/RSA (cryptosystem)]]
* [[User:Krishnan1000|Krishnan1000]] ([[User talk:Krishnan1000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Krishnan1000|contribs]]) 18:36, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Pokemon Battling]]
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=== Spring 2019 ===

{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Mknight77|Mknight77]] ([[User talk:Mknight77|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mknight77|contribs]]) 22:52, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Mayhem fest]]
* [[User:Samirjan0420|Samirjan0420]] ([[User talk:Samirjan0420|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samirjan0420|contribs]]) 22:05, 21 February 2019 (UTC) [[/The most hated car/]]
* [[User:Tobilansangan|Tobilansangan]] ([[User talk:Tobilansangan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tobilansangan|contribs]]) 23:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy/]]
* [[User:alyssamunoz|alyssamunoz]] ([[User talk: alyssamunoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/alyssamunoz|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Dr.Pepper/]]
* [[User:omergreengiant|omergreengiant]] ([[User talk:omergreengiant|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/omergreengiant|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Kabul, Afghanistan/]]
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:14, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]]
* [[User:Gum-POP|Gum-POP]] ([[User talk:Gum-POP|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gum-POP|contribs]]) 22:37, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Gaming Desktop VS Gaming Laptop/]]
* [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 22:42, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Virtual Self/]]
* [[User:Tvo36|Tvo36]] ([[User talk:Tvo36|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tvo36|contribs]]) 23:13, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Markelle Fultz/]]
* [[User:iluca|iluca]] ([[User talk:iluca|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/iluca|contribs]]) 23:14, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Nagishiro Mito/]]
* [[User:Justinchau|Justinchau]] ([[User talk:Justinchau|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justinchau|contribs]]) 23:16, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Best Pizza/]]
* [[User:Ashwinjambu15|Ashwinjambu15]] ([[User talk:Ashwinjambu15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ashwinjambu15|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Mos Def &amp; Talib Kweli Are Black Star/]]
* [[User:Ationgson|Ationgson]] ([[User talk:Ationgson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ationgson|contribs]]) 23:24, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/2JZ Engine/]]
* [[User:Ddimitrov1|Ddimitrov1]] ([[User talk:Ddimitrov1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ddimitrov1|contribs]]) 23:29, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Theatre Of Blood/]]
* [[User:Gli15|Gli15]] ([[User talk:Gli15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gli15|contribs]]) 22:12, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Matcha/]]
* [[User:Akanijade|Akanijade]] ([[User talk:Akanijade|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Akanijade|contribs]]) 22:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Batik/]]
* [[User:BrokenConsole|BrokenConsole]] ([[User talk:BrokenConsole|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BrokenConsole|contribs]]) 22:46, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Custom Built Gaming Computers/]]
* [[User:Lord Arugula|Lord Arugula]] ([[User talk:Lord Arugula|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lord Arugula|contribs]]) 22:47, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Aurelio Voltaire/]]
* [[User:Danialmirza99|Danialmirza99]] ([[User talk:Danialmirza99|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Danialmirza99|contribs]]) 22:50, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Spelling Bee (1938)/]]
* [[User:Janine8100|Janine8100]] ([[User talk:Janine8100|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Janine8100|contribs]]) 22:52, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Brunei Rainforests/]]
* [[User:D_Sh1nra|D_Sh1nra]] ([[User talk:D_Sh1nra|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/D_Sh1nra|contribs]]) 15:07, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Phosphenes/]]
* [[User:Jameslacdao|Jameslacdao]] ([[User talk:Jameslacdao|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jameslacdao|contribs]]) 23:34, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Love of my Life (Queen song)/]]
* [[User:Janinaengo|Janinaengo]] ([[User talk:Janinaengo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Janinaengo|contribs]]) 06:04, 20 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Influence of 90s sitcom Friends/]]
* [[User:Mdapostol|Mdapostol]] ([[User talk:Mdapostol|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mdapostol|contribs]]) 01:32, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Regions of San Jose, California/]]
* [[User:HellBlossoms|HellBlossoms]] ([[User talk:HellBlossoms|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HellBlossoms|contribs]]) 14:13, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Bill Kaulitz/]]
* [[User:Nintenchris5963|Nintenchris5963]] ([[User talk:Nintenchris5963|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nintenchris5963|contribs]]) 22:28, 28 February 2019 (UTC) [[/CrossCode/]]
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=== Fall 2018 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:J3tR0cK3t|J3tR0cK3t]] ([[User talk:J3tR0cK3t|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/J3tR0cK3t|contribs]]) 19:55, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Streets of Rage (Axel Stone)/]]
* [[User:William Leber|William Leber]] ([[User talk:William Leber|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/William Leber|contribs]]) 19:56, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Ethoslab/]]
* [[User:Vicpimentel99|Vicpimentel99]] ([[User talk:Vicpimentel99|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vicpimentel99|contribs]]) 20:19, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Micah Mahinay/]]
* [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 20:21, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Shelter (Song by Porter Robinson &amp; Madeon)/]]
* [[User:Ahuq2|Ahuq2]] ([[User talk:Ahuq2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ahuq2|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza (video game series)/]]
* [[User:Plam153|Plam153]] ([[User talk:Plam153|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Plam153|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Trinh Cong Son (Vietnamese songwriter)/]]
* [[User:DoomFry68|DoomFry68]] ([[User talk:DoomFry68|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DoomFry68|contribs]]) 20:23, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza: Goro Majima/]]
* [[User:FizzahKafil|FizzahKafil]] ([[User talk:FizzahKafil|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/FizzahKafil|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Little Big Planet/]]
* [[User:Dursa1|Dursa S]] ([[User talk:Dursa1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dursa1|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/r.h. Sin/]]
* [[User:ZaroonIqbal|ZaroonIqbal]] ([[User talk:ZaroonIqbal|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ZaroonIqbal|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Fortnite/]]
*  [[User:Lmascardo1|Lmascardo1]] ([[User talk:Lmascardo1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lmascardo1|contribs]]) 20:31, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Stardew Valley/]]
* [[User:Aungthuhtet245|Aungthuhtet245]] ([[User talk:Aungthuhtet245|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aungthuhtet245|contribs]]) 20:32, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Science Behind Pixar/]]
* [[User:Whill4|Whill4]] ([[User talk:Whill4|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Whill4|contribs]]) 15:06, 17 September 2018 (UTC) [[ /Mariner's Apartment Complex (Lana Del Rey song)/]]
* [[User:WontonsofDMG|WontonsofDMG]] ([[User talk:WontonsofDMG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/WontonsofDMG|contribs]]) 19:03, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Heroes of the Storm/]]
* [[User:PATISBACK9|PATISBACK9]] ([[User talk:PATISBACK9|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PATISBACK9|contribs]]) 19:19, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJ screw/]]
* [[User:EnderClevToby|EnderClevToby]] ([[User talk:EnderClevToby|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EnderClevToby|contribs]]) 12:15, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Matthew Fredrick/]]
* [[User:Danny M487|Danny M487]] ([[User talk:Danny M487|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Danny M487|contribs]]) 19:30, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Casey Neistat/]]
* [[User:Itsjustkulsoom|Itsjustkulsoom]] ([[User talk:Itsjustkulsoom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Itsjustkulsoom|contribs]]) 19:31, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Zedd/]]
* [[User:Josemazon123|Josemazon123]] ([[User talk:Josemazon123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josemazon123|contribs]]) 20:06, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/BROCKHAMPTON/]]
* [[User:Ahernandez85|Ahernandez85]] ([[User talk:Ahernandez85|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ahernandez85|contribs]]) 19:17, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Legend Of Zelda: Ocarina of Time/]]
* [[User:JackyLu01|JackyLu01]] ([[User talk:JackyLu01|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackyLu01|contribs]]) 12:30, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Smartisan/]]
* [[User:Manohar singh 32|Manohar singh 32]] ([[User talk:Manohar singh 32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Manohar singh 32|contribs]]) 19:51, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Motion Capture/]]
* [[User:Zwo1|Zwo1]] ([[User talk:Zwo1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zwo1|contribs]]) 23:57, 23 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI Mavic 2 Pro/]]
* [[User:Hartveit|Hartveit]] ([[User talk:Hartveit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hartveit|contribs]]) 01:49, 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Hurdal Verk Folk High School/]]
* [[User:p_ng_r|p_ng_r]] ([[User talk:p_ng_r|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/p_ng_r|contribs]]) 12:41 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Wenqing Yan/]]
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=== Spring 2018 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
* [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]]  01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]]
* [[User:Wompaku|Wompaku]] ([[User talk:Wompaku|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wompaku|contribs]]) 22:21, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Life is Strange/]]
* [[User:Hamitaro|Hamitaro]] ([[User talk:Hamitaro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hamitaro|contribs]]) 22:22, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Persona 5/]]
* [[User:Shayan223|Sean223]] ([[User talk:Shayan223|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shayan223|contribs]]) 22:33, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/David Patrick Crane/]]
* [[User:Touch92|Touch92]] ([[User talk:Touch92|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Touch92|contribs]]) 22:29, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/3D Printing/]]
* [[User:Peg123|Peg123]] ([[User talk:Peg123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Peg123|contribs]]) 22:32, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dota 2/]]
* [[User:Shadow1942oohwa|Shadow1942oohwa]] ([[User talk:Shadow1942oohwa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shadow1942oohwa|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dodge Charger Daytona/]]
* [[User:Skullallen|Skullallen]] ([[User talk:Skullallen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skullallen|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI/]]
* [[User:Johnbcuong|Johnbcuong]] ([[User talk:Johnbcuong|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Johnbcuong|contribs]]) 22:39, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Nguyen Tu Quang/]]
* [[User:W popal1|W popal1]] ([[User talk:W popal1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/W popal1|contribs]]) 22:36, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Lilly Singh/]]
* [[User:Sankeerth1017|Sankeerth1017]] ([[User talk:Sankeerth1017|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sankeerth1017|contribs]]) 22:41, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Pewdiepie/]]
* [[User:Jpierceall1|Jpierceall1]] ([[User talk:Jpierceall1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jpierceall1|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/The World of FPS/]]
*[[User:ShardolBGupta|ShardolBGupta]] ([[User talk:ShardolBGupta|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShardolBGupta|contribs]]) 22:42, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Chevrolet Volt/]]
* [[User:JoshM75401|JoshM75401]] ([[User talk:JoshM75401|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JoshM75401|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jack Thompson/]]
* [[User:Thaliatorres|Thaliatorres]] ([[User talk:Thaliatorres|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Thaliatorres|contribs]]) 23:04, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Laserphaco Probe/]]
* [[User:YuuchyHongroy|YuuchyHongroy]] ([[User talk:YuuchyHongroy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/YuuchyHongroy|contribs]]) 23:23, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Photoshop/]]
* [[User:stzyjpg|stzyjpg]] ([[User talk:stzyjpg|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/stzyjpg|contribs]]) 23:23, 18 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jeff Bezos/]]
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=== Fall 2017 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
*[[User:Kbearrr|Kbearrr]] ([[User talk:Kbearrr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kbearrr|contribs]]) 19:20, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Detriments of the Internet/]]
*[[User:Ratalouie|Ratalouie]] ([[User talk:Ratalouie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ratalouie|contribs]]) 19:45, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Overwatch/]]
*[[User:Inadversity574|Inadversity574]] ([[User talk:Inadversity574|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Inadversity574|contribs]]) 19:44, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fire Emblem/]]
*[[User:Dwingdwang|Dwingdwang]] ([[User talk:Dwingdwang|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dwingdwang|contribs]]) 20:02, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fixed Gear Bikes/]]
* [[User:Isaacpacheco12|Isaacpacheco12]] ([[User talk:Isaacpacheco12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Isaacpacheco12|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Amazon Echo/]]
* [[User:Gdonpadlan|Gdonpadlan]] ([[User talk:Gdonpadlan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gdonpadlan|contribs]]) 20:21, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Nikon D850/]]
*[[User:Cdb1015|Cdb1015]] ([[User talk:Cdb1015|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cdb1015|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Visual Effects in Television and Movies/]]
* [[User:Sjsanchez|Sjsanchez]] ([[User talk:Sjsanchez|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sjsanchez|contribs]]) 01:11, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Ryan Higa/]]
* [[User:Aevans28|Aevans28]] ([[User talk:Aevans28|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aevans28|contribs]]) 03:56, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Patty Jenkins/]]
* [[User:Johnlee1234594|Johnlee1234594]] ([[User talk:Johnlee1234594|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Johnlee1234594|contribs]]) 11:17, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tom Hanks/]]
* [[User:Michaelellasos|Michaelellasos]] ([[User talk:Michaelellasos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michaelellasos|contribs]]) 21:36, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Counter Strike: Global Offensive/]]
* [[bilal621]]  ([[User talk:bilal621|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/bilal621|contribs]]) 22:03, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2/]]
* [[User:Alscylla|Alscylla]] ([[User talk:Alscylla|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alscylla|contribs]]) 13:11, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Final Fantasy Record Keeper/]]
* [[User:Kshadd15|Kshadd15]] ([[User talk:Kshadd15|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kshadd15|contribs]]) 10:59, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Artificial Intelligence/]]
* [[User:Greentea456|Greentea456]] ([[User talk:Greentea456|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greentea456|contribs]]) 18:29, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2|Team Fortress 2]]
* [[User:Mehraan01|Mehraan01]] ([[User talk:Mehraan01|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mehraan01|contribs]]) 19:43, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tesla, Inc./]]
* [[User:Zblazin|Zblazin]] ([[User talk:Zblazin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zblazin|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Graphics processing unit/]]
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=== Spring 2017 ===
{{collapse top|Project List}}
*[[User:Mattvs1|Mattvs1]] ([[User talk:Mattvs1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mattvs1|contribs]]) 22:56, 7 February 2017 (UTC) [[/No Man's Sky/]]
* [[User:Ebondoc98|Ebondoc98]] ([[User talk:Ebondoc98|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ebondoc98|contribs]]) 22:26, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/League of Legends/]]
* [[User:Dmendoza1|Dmendoza1]] ([[User talk:Dmendoza1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dmendoza1|contribs]]) 22:44, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/The Legend Of Zelda/]]
* [[User:Mmmarrufo|Mmmarrufo]] ([[User talk:Mmmarrufo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mmmarrufo|contribs]]) 22:58, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Gabe Newell/]]
* [[User:Jfriedenberg|Jfriedenberg]] ([[User talk:Jfriedenberg|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jfriedenberg|contribs]]) 23:19, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Shinji Mikami/]]
* [[User:AKW2017|AKW2017]] ([[User talk:AKW2017|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AKW2017|contribs]]) 23:32, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Wii U/]]
* [[User:Wramos1|Wramos1]] ([[User talk:Wramos1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wramos1|contribs]]) 23:46, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Lasseter/]]
* [[User:Yjohar1|Yjohar1]] ([[User talk:Yjohar1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yjohar1|contribs]]) 23:48, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Video Game Aggression/]]
* [[User:Dzhang17|Dzhang17]] ([[User talk:Dzhang17|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dzhang17|contribs]]) 23:51, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Fan Bingbing/]]
* [[User:Dougalhathaway|Dougalhathaway]] ([[User talk:Dougalhathaway|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dougalhathaway|contribs]]) 00:04, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Rayman/]]
* [[User:Mochill|Mochill]] ([[User talk:Mochill|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mochill|contribs]]) 04:05, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Commercial Head-up displays/]]
*[[User:Hdo18|Hdo18]] ([[User talk:Hdo18|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hdo18|contribs]]) 18:38, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Cory Arcangel/]]
* [[User:GnaF69|GnaF69]] ([[User talk:GnaF69|discuss)]] • [[Special:Contributions/GnaF69|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Romero/]]
* [[User:Blizz23|Blizz23]] ([[User talk:Blizz23|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Blizz23|contribs]]) 23:45, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Archaeology Robots/]]
* [[User:Bchu55|Bchu55]] ([[User talk:Bchu55|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bchu55|contribs]]) 23:50, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Mark Zuckerberg/]]
{{collapse bottom}}


'''4. Research your topic'''&lt;br&gt;
Look for at least three kinds of sources:
#  Articles, any published material, interviews, videos and information you can use for your own contributions to the site
#  Internet sources that can be linked to your page including multimedia content (please make sure that images and other visual materials not restricted by copyright)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


'''5. Add or edit headings such as:'''
* Early Life and Education or Biography
* Career
* Legacy
* Personal Life
* Exhibitions
* Awards and Nominations (if relevant)
* Bibliography or Further Reading
* History
* Software or Hardware
* References
* External Links

For a detailed editing reference, go to:
[[Wikiversity:FAQ/Editing|Wikiversity Editing Reference]]
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

'''6. Need Images?'''
You can find images that are licensed under the Creative Comments license here [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page/ Wikimedia Commons]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


Include &lt;nowiki&gt;[[Category:Digital Media Concepts]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; at the bottom of the page to move the page into the assignment category.

== Citations ==
APA style
&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Name of Article,&quot; accessed March 11, 2015, http://www.someURL.com.&lt;/ref&gt;

Chicago Style:
&lt;ref&gt;Name of Article (for a source that does not list a copyright date, you use (n.d.) ).  Retrieved October 15, 2015, from  http://www.someURL.com&lt;/ref&gt;

== Example of an annotated image ==

[[File:Great Wall of China in 2014.jpg|thumb|Great Wall of China in 2014]]


&lt;br style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;&gt;

== Example of an [[Template:Infobox|infobox]] ==
{{Infobox
|name    = Wafaa Bilal
|image        = [[File:Wafaa-bilal2.JPG|thumb]]
|title   =  Artist Wafaa Bilal

|headerstyle  = background:#ccf;
|labelstyle   = background:#ddf;
|label1  = 
|data1   = Wafaa Bilal reading at Lannan Center for Poetics and Social Practice, Georgetown University
|label2  = Nationality
|data2   = {{{item_one| Iraqi American}}}
|label3  = Born
|data3   = {{{item_two|June 10, 1966}}}
|label4  = Field of Research
|data4   = {{{item_three|[[Video]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[New Media]]}}}
|label5  = Birth Place
|data5   = {{{item_Four|Najaf, Iraq}}}
|label6  = Autor
|data6   = {{{item_Five|Slowking4}}}


}}
&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

{{Infobox
| name             = Digital Media Concepts
| bodystyle        = 
| titlestyle       = 
| abovestyle       = background:#cfc;
| subheaderstyle   = 
| title            = Test Infobox
| above            = Above text
| subheader        = Subheader above image
| subheader2       = Second subheader
| imagestyle       = 
| captionstyle     = 
| image            = [[File:Example-serious.jpg|200px|alt=Example alt text]]
| caption          = Caption displayed below Example-serious.jpg
| headerstyle      = background:#ccf;
| labelstyle       = background:#ddf;
| datastyle        = 
| header1          = Header defined alone
| label1           = 
| data1            = 
| header2          = 
| label2           = Label defined alone does not display (needs data, or is suppressed)
| data2            = 
| header3          = 
| label3           = 
| data3            = Data defined alone
| header4          = All three defined (header, label, data, all with same number)
| label4           = does not display (same number as a header)
| data4            = does not display (same number as a header)
| header5          = 
| label5           = Label and data defined (label)
| data5            = Label and data defined (data)
| belowstyle       = background:#ddf;
| below            = Below text
}}

&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==Navigational Templates==
[[:w:Wikipedia:Navigation template|Navigation Template on Wikipedia]]

== Media Templates ==
{{Listen
| filename = Lion raring-sound1TamilNadu178.ogg
| title    = Lion roaring
| plain    = yes
| style    = float:left
}}
&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

== Useful links ==
* [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|Quick Reference]] 
* [[:w:Wikipedia:Tutorial/Wikipedia_links|Wikipedia Tutorial]]
* [http://www.wikihow.com/Cite How to cite on Wikipedia]
* [[:w:Help:Link|Using external links]]

== Completed Assignments ==
{{Subpages/List}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Art]]
[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:Human]]
[[Category:Assignments]]
[[Category:Digital art]]
[[Category:Courses]]
[[Category:Education]]</text>
      <sha1>7rptk6eqtkuauz6ldm0n0nzulw55zno</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Animal Phyla/Rotifera</title>
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        <username>The Citer</username>
        <id>3110681</id>
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      <comment>Added phylogeny!</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1562" sha1="ebk4iusnp2524iei54spkzslvu1cbru" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:20090730 020239 Rotifer.jpg|thumb|300px|right|An unidentified rotifer.]]
* Rotifera
* Name Meaning: Wheel bearer
* English Common Name: Rotifers
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Anterior crown of cilia
* Approximate number of species described: about 2000

==Natural History==

==Taxonomy==
The phylum Rotifera has 5 classes:
*Class Bdelloidea
*Class Monogononta
*Class Archiacanthocephala
*Class Eoacanthocephala
*Class Palaeacanthocephala
Additionally, there are some ''Incertae sedis'' families.
==Phylogeny==
{{clade
|label1=Rotifera
|1={{clade
|1=''Polyacanthorhynchus
|label2=Seisonidae
|2={{clade
|1=''Paraseison
|2=''Seison}}
|label3=Eurotatoria
|3={{clade
|label1=Bdelloidea
|1={{clade
|1=Adinetida
|2=Philodinavida
|3=Philodinida}}
|label2=Monogononta
|2={{clade
|1=Collothecaceae
|2=Flosculariaceae
|3=Ploima}}
}}
|label4=Acanthocephala
|4={{clade
|label1=Archiacanthocephala
|1={{clade
|1=Apororhynchida
|2=Gigantorhynchida
|3=Moniliformida
|4=Oligacanthorhynchida}}
|label2=Eoacanthocephala
|2={{clade
|1=Gyracanthocephala
|2=Neoechinorhynchida}}
|label3=Palaeacanthocephala
|3={{clade
|1=Echinorhynchida
|2=Heteramorphida
|3=Polymorphida}}
}}
}}
}}
==Anatomy==

==The Fossil Record==

==Quiz==
* [[/Rotifera Quiz/]]
==References and Further Reading==
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotifer Rotifera] at Wikipedia
* [http://tolweb.org/Rotifera/2480 Rotifera] at Tree of Life
* [http://eol.org/pages/6851/overview Rotifera] at Encyclopedia of Life

[[Category:Animals]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Zoology]]</text>
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This lesson introduces JavaScript objects.

__TOC__

== Objectives and Skills ==
Objectives and skills for this lesson include:&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/learning/exam-98-382.aspx Microsoft: Exam 98-382 Introduction to Programming Using JavaScript]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Complete and debug code that uses objects
** Properties; methods; instantiation; Date object; retrieve date and time parts; localize date format (MM/DD vs DD/MM); add and subtract dates

== Readings ==
# [[Wikipedia: Associative array]]
# [[Wikibooks: JavaScript/Objects]]

== Multimedia ==
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSCz0ZopvIs YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 18 - Objects]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a7Ze-_Wqs3Y YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 19 - Objects Part 2]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRbIOUKsHpY YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 20 - Objects Part 3]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1mO3Qx6kIx0 YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 21 - Objects Part 4]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUmBsIzg94g YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 22 - String Object]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UaRzNWzILD0 YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 51 - More on Objects]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvicrj31JOM&amp;t=40s YouTube: JavaScript this Keyword]
# [https://youtu.be/rLPwCAqyCAE?si=0i_-ktfGILJ0e9sr Javascript Objects Explained | Javascript Objects Tutorial]

== Examples ==
* [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_object_definition.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Objects]
* [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_object_properties.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Object Properties]
* [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_object_methods.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Object Methods]
* [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_object_constructors.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Object Constructors]
* [[/Example Code/]]

== Activities ==
Complete the following activities using external JavaScript code. Apply JavaScript best practices, including comments, indentations, naming conventions, and constants. Use input elements for input and respond to input or change events, add buttons and respond to click events, or set a timer interval and respond to interval events. Use HTML elements for output. Use separate functions for each type of processing. Avoid global variables by passing parameters and returning results. Create test data to validate the accuracy of each program. Add comments at the top of the program and include references to any resources used.

# Create a web page that allows the user to enter book information for a bibliography. Include properties for title, author, year, publisher, city, and state. Respond to one or more user interface events to create an instance of a Book object and then display the book properties in APA format:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.easybib.com/reference/guide/apa/book EasyBib:APA Book Reference]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Last, F. M. (Year) Title. City, State: Publisher.
# Extend the program above by adding an APA method to your object that automatically formats the book for display. Use the APA method to format output, replacing the display code above.
# Extend the program above by adding an MLA method to your Book object that automatically formats the book for display. Display both APA and MLA formats for the book:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.easybib.com/reference/guide/mla/book EasyBib:MLA Book Reference]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;APA: Last, F. M. (Year) Title. City, State: Publisher.&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;MLA: Last, First M. Title. Publisher, Year.
# Extend the program above, allowing the user to enter multiple book titles, one at a time. Add each book to an array of books. Display the full array in APA and MLA format after each object is added to the array.
# Extend the program above, allowing the user to choose either APA or MLA format, and display the selected format for each book. List the books in alphabetical order.

== Lesson Summary ==
* An object is a set of properties or methods.&lt;ref name = &quot;W3Schoolsː JavaScript Objects&quot;&gt;[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_objects.asp W3Schoolsː JavaScript Objects]&lt;/ref&gt; Each object holds related data.&lt;ref name = &quot;MDNː JavaScript object basics&quot;/&gt;
* Objects are written in the ''name:value'' pair format.&lt;ref name = &quot;W3Schoolsː JavaScript Objects&quot;/&gt; Each pair must be separated by a comma.&lt;ref name = &quot;MDNː JavaScript object basics&quot;&gt; [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Objects/Basics MDNː JavaScript object basics] &lt;/ref&gt;
* Object properties may be accessed using the dot notation or the bracket notation.&lt;ref&gt; [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators/Property_accessors MDNː Property accessors] &lt;/ref&gt;
* Object properties can be a wide array of data types, such as arrays or even other objects.
* In JavaScript, almost everything is an object. Only primitive date types, such as number, string, and Boolean, are not objects.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_object_definition.asp&lt;/ref&gt;

== Key Terms ==
;method
:An action that an object can perform. A method is a function stored as a property, specific to that object.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_objects.asp&lt;/ref&gt;

;object
:In JavaScript, almost &quot;everything&quot; is an object. Booleans, numbers, strings, dates, maths, regular expressions, arrays functions, and objects. All values, except primitive values, are objects.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_object_definition.asp&lt;/ref&gt;

;property
:A property is a value associated with a JavaScript object.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/javascript-object-properties&lt;/ref&gt;
'''constructor'''

A constructor is a function that creates an object using the given inputs.
;this
:Refers to the owner of a function.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_objects.asp&lt;/ref&gt;

== See Also ==
* [https://appdividend.com/2018/12/27/javascript-object-keys-example-object-keys-tutorial/ AppDividend: Javascript Object.Keys() Example| Javascript Object Keys]
* [https://fireship.io/courses/javascript/beginner-js-objects/ Fireship.io: Objects]
* [https://www.javascripttutorial.net/javascript-objects/ JavaScript Tutorial: JavaScript Objects]
* [https://javascript.info/object JavaScript.info: Objects]
* [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_Objects MDN: Working with Objects]
* [https://www.sitepoint.com/oriented-programming-2/ SitePoint: JavaScript Object-Oriented Programming]
* [https://www.sitepoint.com/sort-an-array-of-objects-in-javascript/ SitePoint: Sort an Array of Objects in JavaScript]
*[https://www.tutorialrepublic.com/javascript-tutorial/javascript-objects.php TutorialRepublic JavaScript Objects - Manipulating by Value vs. Reference]
* [https://www.tutorialspoint.com/What-is-the-difference-between-a-method-and-a-function TutorialsPoint: What is the difference between a method and a function]
* [https://www.w3resource.com/javascript-exercises/javascript-object-exercises.php W3Resource: JavaScript Object Exercises]
* [https://javascript.info/object JavaScript.Info: Objects]
*[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object MDN: Javascript Objects]
*[https://www.tutorialspoint.com/How-to-pass-an-object-as-a-parameter-in-JavaScript-function How to Pass an Object as a Parameter in Javascript Function]
*[https://www.w3schools.com/jsref/jsref_split.asp W3Schools: JavaScript String Split Method]
*[https://stackoverflow.com/questions/5657219/set-of-objects-in-javascript Stack OverFlow: Set of Objects]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

&lt;noinclude&gt;{{subpage navbar}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
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This lesson introduces JavaScript events.

__TOC__

== Objectives and Skills ==
Objectives and skills for this lesson include:&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/learning/exam-98-382.aspx Microsoft: Exam 98-382 Introduction to Programming Using JavaScript]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Identify and handle HTML events
** onchange; onmouseover; onload; onclick; onmouseout; onkeydown

== Readings ==
# [[Wikipedia: Event (computing)]]
# [[Wikibooks: JavaScript/Event handling]]
# [[Wikibooks: JavaScript/W3C event handlers]]

== Multimedia ==
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlxi1WUSO_8 YouTube: What are JavaScript Events?]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VYuk9uqu04 YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 33 - Intro to events]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HpbHoOwuW2I YouTube: JavaScript 2021 Tutorial 9 - Calling functions from events]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FFyHJF94Eng YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 32 - Changing an image]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ka033dkRJi0 YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 34 - The mouseover event]
#[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F3odgpghXzY YouTube: addEventListener() - Beau teaches JavaScript]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6NMSCh3DJug YouTube: JavaScript Questions: What is Event Delegation, Event Propagation, Event Bubbling?]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YiOlaiscqDY YouTube: A Complete Overview of JavaScript Events - All You Need To Know]
# [https://www.simplilearn.com/tutorials/javascript-tutorial/javascript-events Simplilearn: Understand JavaScript Events with Examples]

== Examples ==
* [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_events.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Events]
* [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom_events.asp W3Schools: JavaScript HTML DOM Events]
* [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom_eventlistener.asp W3Schools: JavaScript HTML DOM Event Listener]
* [[/Example Code/]]
* [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events Events]

== Activities ==
Complete the following activities using external JavaScript code. Apply JavaScript best practices, including comments, indentations, naming conventions, and constants. Use input elements for input and respond to input or change events or add buttons and respond to click events. Use HTML elements for output. Use separate functions for each type of processing. Avoid global variables by passing parameters and returning results. Create test data to validate the accuracy of each program. Add comments at the top of the program and include references to any resources used.
# Create a program to prompt the user for hours worked per week and rate per hour and then calculate and display their weekly, monthly, and annual gross pay (hours * rate). Base monthly and annual calculations on 12 months per year and 52 weeks per year.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pythonlearn.com/html-270/book003.html PythonLearn: Variables, expressions, and statements]&lt;/ref&gt;
# Create a program that asks the user how old they are in years, and then calculate and display their approximate age in months, days, hours, and seconds. For example, a person 1 year old is 12 months old, 365 days old, etc.
# Review [http://www.mathsisfun.com/measure/us-standard-length.html MathsIsFun: US Standard Lengths]. Create a program that asks the user for a distance in miles, and then calculate and display the distance in yards, feet, and inches, or ask the user for a distance in miles, and then calculate and display the distance in kilometers, meters, and centimeters.
# Review [http://www.mathsisfun.com/area.html MathsIsFun: Area of Plane Shapes]. Create a program that asks the user for the dimensions of different shapes and then calculate and display the area of the shapes. Do not include shape choices. That will come later. For now, just include multiple shape calculations in sequence.
# Create a program that calculates the area of a room to determine the amount of floor covering required. The room is rectangular with the dimensions measured in feet with decimal fractions. The output needs to be in square yards. There are 3 linear feet to a yard.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikibooks: Programming Fundamentals/Practice: Data and Operators]]&lt;/ref&gt;
# Create a program that helps the user determine how much paint is required to paint a room and how much it will cost. Ask the user for the length, width, and height of a room, the price of a gallon of paint, and the number of square feet that a gallon of paint will cover. Calculate the total area of the four walls as &lt;code&gt;2 * length * height + 2 * width * height&lt;/code&gt; Calculate the number of gallons as: &lt;code&gt;total area / square feet per gallon&lt;/code&gt; Note: You must round up to the next full gallon. To round up, use the Math.ceil function. Calculate the total cost of the paint as: &lt;code&gt;gallons * price per gallon&lt;/code&gt;.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikibooks: Programming Fundamentals/Practice: Data and Operators]]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Lesson Summary ==
* Events are actions or occurrences that happen in the system you are programming.&lt;ref&gt;https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events&lt;/ref&gt;
* Events occur when the user clicks a button, presses a key on the keyboard, submits a form, resizes the window, etc. JavaScript can detect and react to such events by executing the code.&lt;ref&gt;https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events&lt;/ref&gt;
* Each available event has an event handler, which is a block of code (usually a JavaScript function that you as a programmer create) that will be run when the event fires.&lt;ref&gt;https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events&lt;/ref&gt;
* For a start, it is not a good idea to mix up your HTML and your JavaScript, as it becomes hard to parse — keeping your JavaScript all in one place is better; if it is in a separate file you can apply it to multiple HTML documents.&lt;ref&gt;https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events&lt;/ref&gt;
* Event propagation is a way of defining the element order when an event occurs. If you have one element inside a second element, and the user clicks on the first element, which element's &quot;click&quot; event should be handled first?&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom_eventlistener.asp&lt;/ref&gt;
* In bubbling the innermost element's event is handled first and then the outer.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom_eventlistener.asp&lt;/ref&gt;
* In capturing the outer most element's event is handled first and then the inner&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom_eventlistener.asp&lt;/ref&gt;
*Data on events can include not only the type of event, but when it occurred and what caused it to occur.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-01-12|title=Event (computing)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Event_(computing)&amp;oldid=999891699|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Key Terms ==
;DOM (Document Object Model)
:The HTML DOM represents the structure of a web page in a tree-like format, where each element, attribute, and piece of text in the page is represented as a &quot;node.&quot; This allows developers to interact with the content, structure, and styles of the web page dynamically.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom.asp|title=JavaScript HTML DOM|website=www.w3schools.com|access-date=2019-09-15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;event
:A function can be called when an event occurs such as the user clicking on an element. Some other examples of events in JavaScript are mouseover, mouseout, input, and onload.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom_events.asp&lt;/ref&gt;

;event handler
:An event that can be handled is something happening in a browser window, including a document loading, the user clicking a mouse button, the user pressing a key, and the browser screen changing size. When a function is assigned to handle an event type, that function is run when an event of the event type occurs. Examples include &quot;onclick&quot; and &quot;onmouseover&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/JavaScript/Event_handling|title=JavaScript/Event handling - Wikibooks, open books for an open world|website=en.wikibooks.org|access-date=2020-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;event listener
:It is attached to an element and fires a function when the event is detected on the element.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_htmldom_eventlistener.asp&lt;/ref&gt;

;onchange
:An HTML element has been changed such as a user changing an input field value. (Sometimes still have to hit enter on keyboard to trigger.)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

;onclick
:An HTML event when the user clicks an HTML element.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_events.asp|title=JavaScript Events|website=www.w3schools.com|access-date=2020-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;onkeydown
:An HTML event when the user pushes a keyboard key.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_events.asp|title=JavaScript Events|website=www.w3schools.com|access-date=2020-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;onload
:The browser has finished loading the page.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

;onmouseout
:The user moves the mouse away from an HTML element.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

;onmouseover
:An HTML event when the user moves the mouse over an HTML element.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_events.asp|title=JavaScript Events|website=www.w3schools.com|access-date=2020-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;Touch Event
:A set of HTML events that occur when a user touches a touch-based device.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
:

== See Also ==
* [https://idratherbewriting.com/events-and-listeners-javascript/ IdRatherBeWriting: Events and Listeners]
* [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Events MDN: Event Reference]
* [https://www.w3schools.com/tags/ref_eventattributes.asp W3Schools: Global Event Attributes]
* [https://stackoverflow.com/questions/27905060/what-is-the-difference-between-html-event-attributes-and-assign-events-using-the  StackOverflow: HTML Event Attributes &amp; Assign Events]
* [https://javascript.info/introduction-browser-events Javascript.info - Introduction to browser events]
* [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/Events MDN: Introduction to events]
* [https://eloquentjavascript.net/15_event.html Eloquent JavaScript.net: Handling Events]
* [https://www.tutorialrepublic.com/javascript-tutorial/javascript-event-listeners.php TutorialRepublic: Understanding Event Listeners]
* [https://www.quackit.com/javascript/javascript_event_handlers.cfm JavaScript Event Handlers]
* [https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/javascript-events/ geeksforgeeks: JavaScript Events]
* [https://www.kirupa.com/html5/javascript_events.htm Kirupa: Javascript Events]
* [https://www.javascripttutorial.net/javascript-dom/handling-events-in-javascript/ JavaScript Tutorial: Handling Events in JavaScript]
*[https://www.w3schools.com/tags/tag_input.asp W3Schools: HTML &lt;input&gt; Tag]
* [https://www.javascripttutorial.net/javascript-dom/javascript-input-event/ JavaScript Tutorial Input Event]
* [https://www.w3schools.com/jsref/dom_obj_event.asp W3Schools: HTML DOM Event Object]
* [https://webdesign.tutsplus.com/introduction-to-javascript-event-listeners--cms-35236t An Introduction to JavaScript Event Listeners for Web Designers]
== References ==
{{reflist}}

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      <text bytes="143029" sha1="5iy5tp6064offtm3s3mjz3kwc1p98ed" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}}
= Sandbox =
Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles.

For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:1840 works]]
[[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]]
[[Category:1840s fashion]]
[[Category:British royal attire]]
[[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]]
[[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]]

= Victorian fashion =

== Notes and Quotes ==

* Women followed Paris fashion in Europe and America, but London tailors led the way for men’s fashion. The Industrial Revolution actually impacted men’s fashion more than women’s.
* Sewing machines in factories began mass producing cheap clothing for the largest group in the population, working class men.
* Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and gender differentiation.
* Paper patterns, introduced in fashion magazines that targeted women, along with domestic sewing machines had more impact on women’s fashion than men’s. Haute couture was still bespoke (being individually constructed by tailors or dressmakers or fashion houses like Maison Worth).

Sewing Machines and Clothes

Before the industrial revolution wealthy people paid others to sew their clothes by hand and those who were of much lower economic status did all the manual labor necessary to feed and clothe the rich minority. The working class had to make all their own clothes. Sewing, however, came at the end of the process.  They began with raw wool cut from the backs of sheep or gathering flax.  Only the wealthy could afford to buy fabric.  They followed processes for cleaning and spinning the wool into thread and the processes of soaking and pulling out the fibrous strips to make into thread for linen fabric. After they had thread, it was tied to a loom so it could be woven into cloth.  Then it had to be cut or torn into pieces. For many families scissors were a luxury. And the last step is sewing the pieces together to create a garment.

Machines could not only sew, they could process the raw materials into thread and weave it into fabric much  quicker. Regarding clothing, working class men and their families benefitted greatly from ready-made clothes. Manufacturers marketed to them because they were the largest class. For example,&lt;blockquote&gt;–Men’s shirts, made by machine, take 3 hours and 10 minutes each to do; by hand, 15 hours and 20 minutes; a lady’s dress, by machine, takes 12 hours 4 minutes; by hand 20 hours 35 minutes; . . . a common frock-coat, by the machine occupies 17 hours 20 minutes; by the hand, 27 hours and 40 minutes: a linen vest, by machine, 3 hours 44 minutes; by hand 7 hours 18 minutes; a fine overcoat, by machine, 28 hours 13 minutes; by hand 31 hours 20 minutes; . . . &lt;ref&gt;Mitchell, Rebecca, ed. &quot;22. 'Progress of the Sewing Machine,' ''Bow Bells'' (19 April 1865), p. 283.&quot; Part 6: Production and Industry. ''Fashioning the Victorians: A Critical Sourcebook''. Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancements ===

* the railroad
* mass production of fabrics for working-class men's clothing
** Jacquard looms
* sewing machines
* aniline dyes, including black

=== Expanding Middle Class ===

* gender roles getting more clearly defined and rigid (referring back to page overview)
=== French Revolution ===
Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):&lt;blockquote&gt;The 19th century started with a fashion landscape that was changing dramatically and rapidly from the styles of a generation earlier. The French Revolution brought fashions that had been emerging since the 1780s to the forefront. Neoclassicism now defined fashion as both men and women taking inspiration from classical antiquity. For women, the high-waisted silhouette in lightweight muslin was the dominant style, while fashionable men looked to the tailors of Britain for a new, refined look [17].

[17]  Franklin, H. (Aug 18, 2020). Published on Jun 25, 2020, Retrieved: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1800-1809/&lt;/nowiki&gt; 11/11/2023. Edited. ...&lt;/blockquote&gt;Brent Shannon:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Costume,&quot; wrote Max Beerbohm in 1896, &quot;enables us to classify any 'professional man' at a glance, be he lawyer, leech or who not&quot; (24–25). A man's profession and class were read by his jacket, his hat, what he rode in, and how he carried himself. &quot;Perhaps there is a tendency among Englishmen to judge a man too much by the shape of his hat or the kind of collar he wears,&quot; conduct author John Wanamaker confessed; &quot;But one must remember that in England if you ''wear'' the wrong thing, you will probably ''do'' the wrong thing, and generally ''be'' the wrong thing&quot; (1).&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;

Such assertions were predicated on the powerful Victorian conviction that outward appearance reflected inner qualities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Cut of His Coat: Men, Dress, and Consumer Culture in Britain, 1860–1914|last=Shannon|first=Brent Alan|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2006|location=Athens, Ohio}}&lt;/ref&gt; (148)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Women's fashion==

== Men's fashion ==
(Two intros: one to Victorian Fashion, giving background for both women's and men's fashions; two to the decades for men's fashion)

Among the influences on men's styles:
* differentiation of genders (domestic ideology, ideology of the spheres)
* the &quot;Great Male Renunciation,&quot; the French Revolution and English tailoring
* industrial revolution: mass production of fabrics and articles of clothing, especially for working-class men
* sports and country clothing
* Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, influence went beyond England; tailors led by him led fashion for the upper classes
* then later, cult of youth
* military uniforms
* comfort and convenience
* evolving definitions of gender, both femininity and masculinity evolved as concepts. The changing definitions of masculinity affected men's clothing. For the growing and rising middle classes, gender roles became more and more rigid around the concept of the separate spheres, the public for men and the private sphere for women.
Cultural sources for men's clothing and men's fashion: industrial revolution; expanding middle class; technological advancements; an association in the culture between outward appearance and inward nature; French Revolution; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales

Citation for Victorian Hell: &lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://victorianhell.substack.com/p/victorian-mens-fashion-history-and|title=Victorian Men’s Fashion History and Clothing Guide|last=&quot;It's Monty, Actually&quot;|date=31 October 2025|website=Victorian Hell|access-date=7 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Frock coats ===

* Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg (1866)[[File:Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg|thumb|Romanian (?) Politician, c. 1866, ill-fitting but probably handmade suit|center]]
Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.tif (right)[[File:Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.jpg|thumb|1860, American, young men with frock coats, performers??|center]]

* George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg (Mathew Brady, 1855–1865)
* [[File:George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg|center|thumb|George Augustus Sala, 1855–1865, LoC]]

==== Dress and Conduct Manuals, Histories, Victorian Theory, Catalogs ====
# [Baker, William Henry.]  ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf.
# [[c:File:Hint's_about_men's_dress,_right_principles_economically_applied_(IA_hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf|Hint's about men's dress, right principles economically applied (IA hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf]] (book, conduct manual, American, 1888)
#[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Fashion-_the_power_that_influences_the_world_%28IA_fashionpowerthat00foxg%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&amp;utm_campaign=index&amp;utm_content=original Fashion- the power that influences the world (IA fashionpowerthat00foxg).pdf] (1871)  (American, incl court dress, Victorian fashion theory, livery, &quot;White, as it is the color of day, is expressive to us of the cheerfulness or gaiety which the return of day brings.&quot; [145], &quot;Gentlemen's Furnishing and Goods,&quot; &quot;Head and Foot Covering,&quot; Index)

# [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/How_to_behave_and_how_to_amuse._A_handy_manual_of_etiquette_and_parlor_games_%28IA_howtobehavehowto00sand%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&amp;utm_campaign=index&amp;utm_content=original How to behave and how to amuse. A handy manual of etiquette and parlor games (IA howtobehavehowto00sand).pdf] (1895; American; Men's Dress, p. 23; besides conduct and dress, it has parlor games)
# [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/The_etiquette_of_men%27s_dress_%28IA_etiquetteofmensd00cluc%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&amp;utm_campaign=index&amp;utm_content=original The etiquette of men's dress (IA etiquetteofmensd00cluc).pdf] (1888; American; some ads; anthology of individually written articles; lots of sports, outdoor events; search for &quot;frock&quot; — cutaway vs Prince Albert)
#[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/S.W._Silver_%26_Co.%27s_handbook_for_transatlantic_travellers_.._%28IA_swsilvercoshandb00silv%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&amp;utm_campaign=index&amp;utm_content=original S.W. Silver &amp; Co.'s handbook for transatlantic travellers .. (IA swsilvercoshandb00silv).pdf] (1883; American; lots of ads from SW Silver, with prices; has blank pages where ppl can write &quot;Introductions&quot; and &quot;Engagements,&quot; but this is not a conduct book, it's travel guide / catalog to London)
#[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/How_we_go_to_those_who_cannot_come_to_us.._%28IA_howwegotothosewh00roge%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&amp;utm_campaign=index&amp;utm_content=original How we go to those who cannot come to us.. (IA howwegotothosewh00roge).pdf] (Roger, Peet &amp; Co.; American; catalog, spring 1891; pp. 11, clerical frock; 7 &quot;Prince Alberts&quot; double-breasted frocks; p. 23 shirts as underwear; has a thing on fitting and mail order; bathing suits, collars and cuffs; tennis shoes)

== Victorian Men's Fashion (Intro to the Men's Fashion Section) ==
Museums and other historical sites have plenty of women’s clothes from the nineteenth century. There is great variety in both outer wear and underwear. “Men’s garments of the Victorian period have survived in far less quantity than women’s.” Buck p. 185 More waistcoats have survived than any other garment. The hardest garment to find are trousers. Very few survived the nineteenth century. Buck p. 185 By 1850 trousers dominated the fashion for men; the trouser straps under the shoe had disappeared; and a fly front had replaced the fall-front. Buck 185

It took most of the nineteenth century for men’s fashion to evolve into the coat, trousers and vest (waistcoat) that dominated the twentieth century and appears to be unchanging in the twenty-first century. “Men’s clothing, like women’s, was specific to each occasion and type of activity during the late nineteenth century.” Payne2, p. 518 For example, formal wear for social events was different from the casual, everyday wear for upper middle class and aristocratic men. Victorians also dressed in ensembles for hunting and riding (included knickerbockers–breeches that had a fuller cut). Casual and looser clothing was worn when participating in sports. Many different cuts of coats were available, like the Norfolk jacket, the morning coat, or the sack coat.

“Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.” Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today.

Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and the gender differentiation.


David Kutcha traces the origin of the 3-piece men's suit to King Charles II of England, who may be said to be wearing a coat, pants and a waistcoat, but otherwise is not wearing a &quot;suit&quot; we — or the Victorians — would recognize as such: &lt;blockquote&gt;... since 1666, male gentility has been associated with modesty and plainness in dress. Eschewing fashion as an increasingly feminized realm Charles II's vest inaugurated a new and essentially modern era of masculine aesthetics, one that reversed a long-held association between elaborate display and high social status. Manly thrift now displayed elite status.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Three-Piece Suit and Modern Masculinity, England 1550–1850|last=Kutcha|first=David|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}}&lt;/ref&gt; (2)&lt;/blockquote&gt;So it's really Cromwell who should get credit??

The French Revolution caused both men and women to change stylistic direction radically. For one generation, stylish women wore simple white muslin dresses without foundation garments underneath. The changes in men's fashion was more lasting: men turned away from the ornamentation and ruffles of the ''ancien régime'', choosing instead understated and subtle tailoring to indicate good taste and wealth.

Poole

&quot;comfort and convenience&quot; — trousers, sack coats, collars and cuffs without a shirt, wool rather than silks and satins; knee breeches constantly riding up

men as leaders of fashion, in spite of our sense that men didn't do fashion in the way that women did, were more serious than that

=== Dandy Stuff ===
Beau Brummell: &quot;Men began to aspire to fine cutting, tailoring, and perfect fit in their clothes, flawless grooming and manners in themselves. The Englishman George Bryan (Beau) Brummell deserves much credit for the ideal of meticulous masculine appearance.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The History of Costume: From Ancient Mesopotamia Through the Twentieth Century|last=Payne|first=Blanche|last2=Winakor|first2=Geitel|last3=Farrell-Beck|first3=Jane|publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman|year=1992|isbn=0-06-047141-7|edition=2nd|location=New York, New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; (458) &quot;From 1796 to 1816, the Beau set the pattern for cleanliness and liberal use of starch.&quot; (459)

=== Gender Ideologies ===
'''Victorian gender ideologies''' relegated men to the &quot;public sphere&quot; and women to the &quot;domestic sphere.&quot; (??) More than that “the cult of youth . . . the secularization of sport and the influence of modern warfare in generating men’s fashions, the tendency to prefer modern ideas of comfort and convenience, and the transformation of fashion knowledge and fashion urbanism from print to hyperreality”&lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot;&gt;McNeil, Peter. &quot;Men's Fashion: 1800–2022.&quot; Chapter 22. ''The Routledge History of Fashion and Dress, 1800 to the Present''. Routledge, 2024. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/182707/2/Men%27s%20Fashion%20200822_24_12_20_09_29_44.pdf

DOI: 10.4324/9780429295607-27.&lt;/ref&gt; (McNeil 1 or 411) changed the perceptions of masculinity and femininity.

=== Class ===
The growing middle class involved among other things more and more jobs and careers for young men as clerks, office workers, they were junior, subordinate, and they were commuting on the railroads from suburbs.
Carolyn Kirby:&lt;blockquote&gt;In western Europe the fashion for plain dark suits coincided with the rise of the affluent middle-classes in a world where the pace of industrialisation and the globalisation of trade was accelerating as never before. The sharp, dark business suit became the last word in male power-dressing. And so it remains to this day.&lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://historiamag.com/invent-masculine-fashion/|title=The invention of masculine fashion|last=Kirby|first=Carolyn|date=3 December 2025|website=Historia: Magazine of the Historical Writers' Association|access-date=25 August 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Bertie ===
Albert Edward, Prince of Wales was very concerned with fashion and authoritative about it, with a very specific eye to small details. He was increasingly influential in men's fashion from the last third of the 19th and into the 20th century, and many noticed what he did and copied him.&lt;blockquote&gt;When that great lover of pleasure, Edward VII, visited Marienbad incognito as the Duke of Lancaster, he was followed by tailors from Paris, Budapest, Vienna, and Berlin who photographed him and took notes about his clothes. Edward VII introduced many [423–424] novelties into men’s fashion. ... He is also credited with making fashionable the creased trouser in 1909 (his groom dried them with a board weight after heavy rain, resulting in the line), turned-up cuff trouser (after hitching his trouser bottoms at a dirty racing track) and, as his girth grew, undoing the bottom button of his waistcoat.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt; (424)&lt;/blockquote&gt;Cowles&lt;blockquote&gt;The Prince was not just ‘a swell’. In the jargon of the day he was ‘a heavy swell’, and apparently there was a world of difference between the two terms. A swell was a rich young aristocrat who lived in extreme comfort; but a heavy swell added showmanship to the comfort and lived in a stylish luxury that even the French were obliged to envy. And of course the heavy swell was the acme of sartorial elegance.

The Prince did not mind changing his dress half a dozen times a day. He loved clothes, and since whatever he chose to wear became the prevailing fashion overnight, he soon was regarded as an expert on the subject. His tailor-in-chief made a fortune. For many years he patronised a Mr. Poole. He discovered this gentleman by accident. He went to the theatre one night to see a well-known actor by the name of Fecher playing ‘Robert Macaire’. As an impecunious adventurer [129–130] Fechter was obliged to wear a coat that was torn and dirty, but Bertie’s expert eye noticed the elegant cut. At the end of the performance he asked Fechter for the name of his tailor, and Mr. Poole’s future was assured.

The Prince had so many clothes he could never travel with less than two valets; and two more valets were left at home cleaning, brushing and pressing his vast wardrobe. There were suits and coats for every variation of every climate the world over. There were over a hundred pieces of headgear; and since Bertie was an honorary admiral and an honorary general of most of the countries of Europe, there was an entire room devoted to uniforms, sashes, epaulettes, belts, buckles, swords, feathers and other regalia. ...

Men’s clothes became of such importance that new [130–131] shops sprang up like mushrooms in Savile Row, Clifford Street and Bond Street. Most of the Prince’s innovations were inspired by comfort and convenience. He altered the cut of the evening dress waistcoat, he shortened the tails on the tail coat, he left his frock coat open (due to an increasing girth), he introduced the black homburg, and he attended race meetings, not in the frock coat hitherto ''de regueur'' but in tweeds. He tried having his trousers creased down the sides rather than the front and back, in order to hide his bandy legs, but this idea did not catch on, and he soon discarded it himself. But the prince was not the only arbiter of men’s fashions. The band of  &quot;heavy swells&quot; who followed his lead gave him plenty of competition. Lord Raglan and Lord Petersham invented coats which are still named after them. Lord Dupplin the dinner jacket and Lord Cardigan the button-up sweater. But Lord Hardwicke made the most spectacular contribution. Men’s silk hats were made of beaver which was left in its original rough, shaggy state. Lord Hardwicke polished his hat until he could see his face in it, and consequently was known as &quot;Glossy Top&quot;. He is responsible for the top hat as we know it today.&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Gay monarch, the life and pleasures of Edward VII|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|publisher=Harper|year=1956|location=New York, New York|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/gaymonarchlifepl0000cowl/}}&lt;/ref&gt; (129–131)&lt;/blockquote&gt;
=== Men’s Clothing 1830–1900 (Intro to the Decades) ===
“Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; (458) Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. (this is middle-class men for day wear?)

The silhouette for men sometimes followed the same line as women’s clothing on the top half of their bodies. For example, as women’s sleeves grew into the huge leg-of-mutton fullness, the shoulders of men’s coats also had added fabric to make a pouf at the shoulder, thus emphasizing a broad shouldered look across the front. Men’s silhouettes changed subtly without the exaggerated fullness of women’s skirts or the raising and lowering of the neckline. Once men began to wear trousers, they did not go back to formal knee breeches (except in European courts or for court wear for Victoria).

The line of men’s garments changed in smaller increments than women’s. Coats and trousers might fit tighter in some decades and looser in others. They were slim, then boxy, flared, then straight and evolved into the contemporary line we see on men today.

Men's fashions in the 19th century have been less researched than women's fashions, in part because of fewer artifacts of what men wore were saved in museums for study.

Photography, the first century that we have actual images (rather than artists' interpretations) of what people wore.
==== Court and Formal Dress ====
Livery, working class

Formal dress was separate attire, used for specified occasions, varies by decade

==== Shirts ====
Shirts and collars separated: &quot;by 1827 detachable collars became available.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; (477) Shirts were considered more like underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

Neck treatments (and shirt cuffs)

Shirts were treated as underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

==== Coats and Jackets ====
The 1901 ''Clothes Dictionary'' says coats were &quot;The principal garment of men's attire.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot; /&gt;{{rp|10}}

Several styles of coats were available to fashion-conscious aristocratic and upper-middle-class men. Men’s suits in this period were tailor made, fitted to one specific man. The factories, however, knew that the vast majority of men were working class and began to manufacture and sell ready-made shirts, coats and trousers. More clothes were available for working men and they cost less. The cheaper work clothes enabled upper-working-class men to own more than one set of clothes and to have more formal clothes for church or other events. Ready-made shirts were also available in generic sizes, small, medium and large. Generic sizing speeded up the mass production process and, since little of the shirts could be seen, they did not need custom fitting.

Almost all of the coats Victorian men wore could be single or double breasted, with a couple of exceptions like morning coats and Norfolk jackets.

On more formal occasions upper-class men wore a '''cutaway morning coat''' with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark '''tail coat''' and trousers in the evening. (define these terms) 

Morning coats was a general term for the jacket part of &quot;full dress&quot; or formal daytime wear, distinguished from formal evening wear. Most morning coats were cutaways, but the shape or cut is not the distinguishing feature: the bottom was curved or tailed, so the coat was short in front, it did not have a waist seam, single-breasted. Worn over a waistcoat and shirt.

According to Payne, &quot;During the early 1820s tailcoats were the most popular type of coat.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;{{rp|474}} &quot;Tailcoats gave way to skirted frock coats by the 1840s.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; (491) Tailcoats came down as far as the waist and then had tails (or &quot;claw hammer&quot; tails) attached at the waist in the back. Single-breasted, could be worn buttoned or unbuttoned in the front, over a waistcoat and shirt.

Nowadays, the only tailcoats are tuxedos, a term not in use until the 1880s, and named for Tuxedo Park, a village in New York populated by the elite. Originally only the white coat, ''tuxedo'' gradually came to mean the entire suit.

==== Frock Coats ====
[[File:Frock coat MET CI38.23.39 F.jpeg|alt=Old-fashioned coat hanging on a mannequin|thumb|Frock coat, 1840, American]]
Frock coats were introduced in the 1820s and worn throughout the nineteenth century with only minor changes to the line or fit. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Initially frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The rate of fashion change notable in women's fashion was true for men's clothing as well. The frock coat persisted for a century, but it was in a state of constant (but subtle) evolution, with collars and lapels, coat length, the waist seam, the fullness of the coat itself as well as the sleeve, color, patterns like stripes or plaids. 

A Prince Albert is a double-breasted, very well-tailored, form-fitting frock coat.&lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot;&gt;[Baker, William Henry.]  ''Clothes Dictionary''.  Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|33}} 

Gentlemen, clergy, military 

Men around the world and especially in the British Empire wore frock coats: images and descriptions exist of men wearing frock coats in India&lt;ref&gt;Woodyatt, Nigel Gresley. ''Under Ten Viceroys; The Reminiscences of a Gurkha''. London: H. Jenkins Limited, 1922. Pp. 31, 107, 1774.&lt;/ref&gt;, Iran (Persia at that time)&lt;ref&gt;Sparroy, Wilfrid. ''Persian children of the royal family; the narrative of an English tutor at the court of H. I. H. Zillus-Sultán, G.C.S.I''. London and New York, J. Lane, 1902. Pp. 11, 29, 30.[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&amp;utm_campaign=index&amp;utm_content=original https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf].&lt;/ref&gt;, Japan&lt;ref&gt;Watson, W. Petrie. ''Japan, Aspects and Destinies''. New York, Dutton: 1904. P. 7, 19, 31.&lt;/ref&gt;, Egypt and Turkey&lt;ref&gt;Butler, Alfred Joshua. ''Court Life in Egypt''. London: Chapman and Hall, 1887. P. 7.&lt;/ref&gt;, ....

==== Trousers ====
Breeches: Men’s bifurcated garment that ended just below the knee

Trousers: men’s bifurcated garment that went down to the ankles or foot
The most sweeping change in men’s fashion before 1820 was in the length of their pants. Trousers that went from waist to foot were so much more comfortable and popular than knee breeches that they replaced what had dominated men’s wear since the sixteenth century. And trousers have been worn for over two centuries now.

They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches, and they could afford to have their suits and shirts hand sewn and individually. Working class men had to contend with small, medium, and large from mass production.

This bifurcated garment was modified in specific places, like the length, the fullness over the hips or the width of the leg. In summer trousers were lighter in color — &quot;grayish blue, aqua and pearl gray.&quot; (Payne 2, 505) In winter trousers mixed darker colors like &quot;steel gray and brown, black and brown, and black and green.&quot; (Payne 505) More on summer colors, winter colors?

[Find quote about QV's men's court dress and the men being so cold]

Lewandowski: &quot;First worn by the early horse-riding steppe people, introduced to Western world by Italians in 16th century. They were accepted as informal dress in the Directoire (1790–1815 C.E.). They became a part of semi-formal dress around 1815 and became worn commonly after 1830.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:31&quot; /&gt; (298)

==== Waistcoats ====
Victorian men put their creativity, color and specialty fabrics into their waistcoats. At the beginning of the century men's waistcoats were made from specialty fabrics, like velvet or brocade or a patterned silk, sometimes two at the same time: &quot;During the 1820s and 1830s, men sometimes wore two waistcoats, in combinations like white velvet over rose-and-gold brocade.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; (474) Long after coats and trousers were made from the same dark wool, waistcoats continued to be colorful, making them the focus of the ensemble.

By the end of the 19th century waistcoats made from the same fabric as the trousers and coat dominated men’s fashion.

1880s: &quot;The term vest now applied to all but low-necked formal styles, which were still called waistcoats.&quot; (Payne 2 528)
[[File:Homosexualitywilde.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde and Bosie Douglas, straw boater and derby, 1894]]

==== Overcoats ====
Overcoats became a significant fashion element and many styles were seen throughout the century. 

&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;Kay, Fiona and Neil R. Storey, ''Victorian Fashions for Women'', Pen &amp; Sword History, Yorkshire - Philadelphia, 2022

Surtout: &quot;An overcoat cut in the style of a frock coat.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot; /&gt; (39) Lewandowski says somethng more generic, &quot;term referring to any man's long cloak or coat.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:31&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Complete Costume Dictionary|last=Lewandowski|first=Elizabeth J.|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; (282)

==== Hats ====
The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hats]] (known in America as a derby) were worn by the working class. 1830s This class of men also wore round cloth caps, often seen on male children.

The straw boater was the most popular hat by the end of the century and was worn by all of the classes.

Men wore [[top hats]], with wide brims in sunny weather. 1830s - 1900

Top hats briefly became the very tall &quot;stovepipe&quot; shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.

Homburgs, deerstalkers and “Trilbies” were also popular. Buck, p. 198-199 (George de Maurier novel ''Trilby'') Hats were ''de rigueur'' for all Victorians, all classes, all ages, all genders.

==== Shoes ====
[[File:Men's fashion silhouette of 1837.jpg|thumb|Men's coats, 1837]]
[[File:Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger.JPG|thumb|Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger, 1836]]

=== 1830s and 1840s ===
For men's fashion, the 1830s and 1840s were dominated by a defined waist, lean limbs and tall hats.

Working-class men had been wearing trousers for some time, but by the 1830s and '40s, middle- and upper-class men generally wore frock coats and trousers for casual or less formal attire in the city. In the country, what they wore depended on what they were doing — hunting, riding, shooting and so on.[[File:Man's Frock Coat LACMA M.2007.211.61 (1 of 4).jpg|alt=Male mannequin wearing a light-colored thigh-length coat similar to a suit jacket and a top hat|thumb|Men's frock coat, c. 1845]]
[[File:Stockholms mode-journal- Tidskrift för den eleganta werlden 1847, illustration nr 2.jpg|thumb|Stockholm's fashion magazine, 1847]]Some men wore corsets during this time, so the waist was nipped in and the skirt of the frock coat flared out. The sleeves of their coats and jackets were slightly puffed at the shoulders. The trouser legs were straight with a strap under the instep. The figure on the left in the fashion plate from ''Modes de Paris Journal des Tailleurs'' (right) illustrates this silhouette very clearly as well as the frock coat, the strap under the instep, and the puffed shoulders.

==== Coats and Jackets ====
Frock coats had become fashionable for day wear in the 1820s&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;{{rp|474}} and were worn throughout the century. In the 1830s frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. 

The main changes in frock coats in these two decades were in the colors and the neck treatments (collar and lapels). Initially frock coats were not necessarily black. They could be colorful — like &quot;plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green&quot; — with &quot;contrasting velvet collars.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;{{rp|474}} The truly bright, saturated colors made possible by synthetic dyes, however, were a couple of decades away still and were never used for frock coats. 

Middle- and upper-class men limited their use of tailcoats to evening wear and more formal occasions. (In the 1847 Stockholm fashion magazine, below right, the figure in the center is wearing a tailcoat.) A cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers for formal events during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers were worn in the evening.

==== Shirts ====
Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[cravats]] or neck ties. Before they were mass produced, shirts made of finer linen or cotton were tailored for upper and wealthy middle-class men. Depending on occupation, working-class men's shirts were made from a rougher, home-woven linen or cotton, often shaped loosely like a smock and sometimes without a front closure. Shirts were sometimes as long as knee-length. 

==== Trousers ====
By 1830 men were typically wearing trousers both for formal and semi-formal dress, having adopted them over knee breeches for semi-formal dress &quot;around 1815.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:31&quot; /&gt; (298) Working-class men had been wearing trousers (or &quot;trowsers&quot;)

Trousers or long pants had been introduced and were eagerly accepted by men because they were more comfortable and looser than the tight-fitting knee breeches and coats from earlier in the century. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches. Aristocrats and upper middle class could afford the well-tailored cut and fit of individually hand-sewn trousers and coats.

&quot;Trousers of the 1830s fit quite snugly ..., but in the 1840s they became looser.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; (477) Knee breeches still existed, but only for court wear, riding and country wear (in the form of knickerbockers).

==== Waistcoats ====
waistcoat; vest

“Waistcoats [or vests] remained colorful, decorative items in men’s wardrobes after the rest of their costumes had become plain.” (Payne 2 460-462) They could be single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. Collars gradually lowered over the course of the two decades. Often the colorful vests were decorated with fur or velvet collars. 

==== Overcoats ====
Men wore a variety of topcoats or overcoats. Surtouts were overcoats built like long frock coats, like the one worn by Lev Wittgenstein in the portrait (above right). The redingote was most popular in the 1830s and 1840s. Redingotes had a rolled collar, sleeves with fullness at the shoulders and upper arm and narrow at the elbows to the wrist. It was fitted at the waist and reached mid-calf. 

==== Original Text ====
During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather.
=== 1850s ===
The 1850s revealed several industrial inventions that significantly impacted clothing. First, the Industrial Revolution began (and still does today) with machines to weave fabric and machines to sew fabrics. Manufacturers quickly learned that the majority of the population was working class. Theirs were the simplest, least trimmed garments made in the nineteenth century. Second, mass production of shirts, trousers and coats changed how most people shopped for clothes. The aristocracy and upper middle class folks could still have their clothes made to specifically fit their bodies. Manufacturers knew that they could not mass produce clothing for each individual’s body. They invented generic sizing in small, medium, and large. They could, therefore, produce many more items of clothing with generic sizing. Third, Isaac Singer patented and began to manufacture home or domestic sewing machines (treadle machines) enabling more form-fitted '''dresses''' to be constructed for an individual’s specific shape and size. The fourth item to impact fashion and clothing was the invention of the paper pattern. These were introduced in fashion magazines targeting women. Almost all women were taught to sew by hand, whether they were aristocrats or working class. Sewing machines enormously speeded up the '''process of constructing from hours to minutes'''. Finally, aniline dyes made colors brighter and longer lasting. Prints and stripes, checks and plaids, fabrics had much more vibrant color with aniline dyes. The Industrial Revolution impacted the working class and changed their lives the most.

children's clothes? Women made men's clothing too
According to Judith Flanders, working-class men's clothes could be colorful. For example drivers of hansom cabs () dressed more up-scale, and drivers of hackneys () did not.&lt;blockquote&gt;While hackney drivers were also considered to be stereotypically shabby, hansom-cab drivers were generally represented as smartly dressed. A print in 1850 showed a driver in a snappy brown coat instead of the coachman’s heavy multiple-caped outfit, pale green striped trousers, short boots and top hat, the [167–168] reins held daintily in his gloved hands. Both cab and coach drivers wore top hats, but cabbies of a sporting bent later switched to bowlers, and in summer donned bright checked outfits.&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|last=Flanders|first=Judith|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|year=2012|location=New York, New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; (167–168 [of 972])&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A variety of silhouettes was seen in the 1850s. Trousers were long and slim with a strap under the instep of the shoe. 

==== Coats and Jackets ====
&quot;Although the frock coat was worn throughout the century, it lost its dominant position in the 1850s, when the morning coat began to replace it.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot; /&gt;

A jacket shorter than the frock coat or morning coat that had visible pockets began to be worn in about 1850. Cutaway tail coats were still reserved for formal occasions. All of these coats could be single or double breasted. They were called “ditto suits” by those who wore them because the coat, trousers, and waistcoat were all made from the same fabric. There were morning coats and cutaway morning coats; there were Norfolk jackets and ditto suits. The most formal were the cutaway tail coats for evening wear and balls; and the least formal were the boxy shaped sack coats. By the 1860s, it had become the most popular casual coat.

==== Shirts ====
During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like &quot;wings.&quot;

==== Trousers ====
Trousers had fly fronts and breeches were used for formal functions and knickers (short pants fuller cut than breeches) for horseback riding. Men's choice to wear trousers is an instance of the importance of comfort and convenience outweighing style and presentation, a value that increased in importance through the 20th century.

==== Waistcoats ====
Waistcoats remained the one garment that could be brightly colored and copiously trimmed on exotic fabrics. Waistcoats show that men were concerned with decorative elements in their ensemble.

==== Notes &amp; Quotes ====

* transition from frock coats to ditto suits, 1850s (Payne, 463)
==== Hats ====
The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. Caps

==== Overcoats ====
Overcoats were cut fuller with wider sleeves and no extra fullness at the shoulder. Unlike the redingote, the overcoats had straight seams to the knee length. Many had wide lapels that reached below the waist. Working class men and their families benefitted more from the industrial revolution in regards to clothing.  Manufacturers marketed to them because because they were the largest class.
[[File:Gazette of Fashion, February 1865, RP-P-2009-2675.jpg|thumb|1865, Frock coats, etc. (Paris)]]
[[File:Gazette of Fashion, October 1864, RP-P-2009-2673.jpg|thumb|1864, Frock coats, etc., Paris]]
[[File:Broadway fashions, New York LCCN2003677917.jpg|thumb|Butterick, Spring-Summer 1866, Broadway Fashions]]
[[File:Four young men wearing frock coats - DPLA - 4706a21c9267c45034d51c8fc5309251 (page 1).jpg|thumb|1860s, working class?, ill fitting, frock coats, trousers, shirts, vest, derby hats]]

=== 1860s ===
[[File:Corporal frock coat 1862 med.jpg|thumb|Corporal frock coat 1862, 9-botton military]]The 1860s saw fewer inventions that influenced or changed the way people were acquiring clothes. But the changes begun by mass production continued with the working class. Little changed for the higher classes, except maybe paper patterns and sewing machines.

The different shape and size in clothing continued to provide slightly different silhouettes for men in the upper and middle classes. As women's clothes grew more complex in cut and style, men's clothes became simpler in cut and style.

==== Coats and Jackets ====
Individualized fittings continued for upper class and wealthy middle class clients. (Working class as well as middle and upper class.) Working class was well over 60% of the population. For the largest class, ready-made garments were ideal for men and women who were working class. 

For the two upper classes morning coats still led the way but frock coats were still in demand and worn in business and more casual situations. Leisure wear like knickers and ditto suits became more popular in the 1860s. Haute couture wanted every occasion or event to have special clothing. In some ways men dressed more alike (coat, trousers, waistcoat) and in some ways there was more variety in the cut of their coats and in the manufactured clothing they could buy. Many upper class men still had their shirts custom made.

Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette.

The Prince of Wales: &quot;For the countryside such as at Sandringham, he permitted an informal dress code. The Henry Poole ledger marked as 'HRH 1865' is for an evening coat without tails, the first 'dinner jacket.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt; (424)

==== Shirts ====
Ready-made shirts rarely were seen since shirts were more underwear than outerwear. Factories began to make and sell detachable collars and cuffs. It was more convenient to replace collars and cuffs each day than the time it took a servant (working class) to wash and starch enough to look like the celluloid many of those collars were made of. 

==== Trousers ====
Trousers were cut full and boxy during most of the 1850s and 1860s. The strap under the shoe disappeared and trouser legs reached the back of the heel in length. Knickers were still worn for hunting or riding and breeches were still ''de rigueur'' at court.

==== Waistcoats ====
Waistcoats remained decorative and worn with most of the coats that were popular. The young “dandies” wore the most colorful and decorated waistcoats. These “dandies” gave their highest priority to their appearance. They were the avant garde of haute couture for men.

==== Necks Treatments ====
In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin.

==== Hats ====
Top hats briefly became the very tall &quot;stovepipe&quot; shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.

==== Overcoats ====
The single-breasted redingote continued in popularity among the aristocracy and upper middle-class.  These coats were often “in colors such as plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green . . . [with] contrasting velvet collars.” Payne2 p. 474 [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]]
[[File:Ashurst frock coat.jpg|thumb|Ashurst Frock coat]]
[[File:Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat; Standing (fbc266c2feca43f6ad5b44e031635a8d).tif|alt=Old photograph of a man wearing a dark thigh-length coat similar to a suit coat with light-colored trousers|thumb|Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat, c. 1872]]
[[File:Caillebotte Hugot.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Paul Hugot, 1878]]
[[File:Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), by Hills &amp; Saunders, Rugby &amp; Oxford 3 april 1876.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde, 1876, ditto suit]]
[[File:FrockCoat.jpg|thumb|English frock coat, 1870s]]

=== 1870s ===
To correct and prevent errors being made in court dress, in 1875 the Lord Chamberlain published ''Dress Worn by Gentleman at Her Majesty's Court'', &quot;a summary of regulations for court uniform and dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dress_worn_by_Gentlemen_at_Her_Majesty_s/pvrbQCXq0MEC?hl=en|title=Dress worn by Gentlemen at Her Majesty's Court|last=Britain)|first=Victoria (Queen of Great|date=1875|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is the kind of thing Bertie really cared about. Define court dress.

A portly, boxy silhouette was sought for most of the 1870s. Older men whose stomachs had spread outward and thus looked prosperous to the Victorians were the ideal for men’s high fashion. Sack coats and trousers were cut a little wider in the legs.

Corduroy for trousers and muslin for shirts was often used in working class clothing.

==== Coats and Jackets ====
There were minor changes to some of the coats Victorian men wore. Frock coats were shortened to the knee. Sack coats (or ditto coats — the forerunner of the suits worn by men in the western cultures of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries) were found to be so comfortable that most men of the upper and middle classes had a ditto suit. Men still wore morning coats and the aristocracy still wore cutaway coats with trousers to parties and balls but cutaway coats with knee breeches at court.

==== Shirts ====
Although ready-made shirts were available, the upper and middle classes still wore bespoke clothing hand-made, with better fabric and an excellent fit but stitched on machines. The suits and shirts made for the working class were of cheaper fabrics.

==== Trousers ====
Most men were wearing trousers  all of the time (except at court) and have worn them ever since. Trousers had button flies by the 1870s which most men found to be much more convenient than laces. Trousers did not “ride up” the leg in the way that knee breeches did when dancing or sitting. If a man did not have fashionable legs, they could be obscured behind trousers.

==== Waistcoats ====
White waistcoats began to be worn by men. Black were also worn when mourning. Changes in the waistcoat could be seen but were very subtle. For example, collars were lowered as the neckline grew deeper and deeper in front, revealing more of the fancy vest.

==== Overcoats ====
A longer version of the standard overcoat, “sometimes with fur collar, cuffs, and lining” was often worn for warmth. Payne2 p. 519 Added to overcoats, “Chesterfield coats were single-breasted, with fly fronts and velvet collars.”  Payne2 p. 519

==== Original Text ====
During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating.
[[File:Elliott &amp; Fry10a.jpg|thumb|William Gladstone, 1887, morning coat]]
[[File:British politicians gambling at Ascot Wellcome V0050378.jpg|thumb|British Politicians Gambling at Ascot, 1884]]
[[File:Scribner's magazine (1887) (14595087238).jpg|thumb|1887, types of American servants]]

=== 1880s ===
The silhouette narrowed and straightened. That is, the line went straight down without the flare of skirts on the coats. This smooth line had few decorations. Men wore hardly any jewelry. They might have a boutonniere or a ring.  Suits were not  decorated. All coats were straighter and shorter.

Depending on the time of day, the Prince of Wales might change his clothes (thus, his silhouette) up to six times per day,&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot; /&gt; (129) and some aristocrats and upper-class men would follow his lead.

==== Coats and Jackets ====
Although the frock coat was worn throughout the nineteenth century, the single fabric sack suit was worn for casual wear and was beginning to be seen as a businessman’s suit.  Morning coats were still in use for some events as well as casual occasions. The modern tuxedo or Cowes jacket appeared and was worn for formal occasions. The tuxedo is still worn as formal dress today.

==== Shirts ====
Shirts were still custom made for the rich and the working class bought ready-made shirts. The shirt remained basically the same but it could handle the different neck treatments.  Even mass produced shirts could have buttons or button holes for detachable collars and cuffs.

==== Trousers ====
Trouser legs began to decrease in width as the coat became narrower and emphasized strong vertical lines.

==== Waistcoats ====
During the 1880s waistcoats were called vests [is it regional?] and much of their bold trim and colorful fabric disappeared and vests were constructed from the same fabric as the coat and trousers. 

The business suit for men developed in the 1880s and was firmly established in the 1890s.

==== Overcoats ====
Versions of topcoats increased, adding an ulster overcoat for travel and an Inverness coat with up to five cape collars and a high curved collar. Double breasted topcoats were popular and some were knee-length and some calf-length.

==== Original Text ====
During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe.
[[File:American fashions - The Jno. J. Mitchell Co. Litho., New York. LCCN2006676665.jpg|thumb|Fashion plate from the Jno. J. Mitchell Co., New York, 1899]]
[[File:Alfred Milner Vanity Fair 1897-04-15.jpg|thumb|Alfred Milner, 1897, Leslie Ward (&quot;Spy&quot;), for Vanity Fair]]
[[File:Nobl-08.jpg|thumb|Sherlock Holmes, 1892, Sidney Paget]]
[[File:PUK1894page380rector poor.jpg|thumb|Rector and Drinker, 1894]]

=== 1890s ===
The dominant silhouette for men became the sack suit in the 1890s and while changes in the sack have been subtle, it remains the dominant silhouette today.

==== Coats and Jackets ====
“Sacks became ''the'' favored style of suit coat,”(Payne2, p. 532) especially among the younger men. Frock coats were associated with older men along with the cutaway coat. There were many more choices for sports wear and leisure wear than ever before. Norfolk jackets were often worn while hunting. Most informal styles could be purchased ready made. The rich still had their clothing custom made by tailors but even working class men could purchase most ready-made versions of the coats, trousers, and vests.

==== Shirts ====
Shirts could be made of patterned fabric as well as solid colors and white.  Shirts were beginning to be acceptable as outer wear especially when worn as sporting clothing.

==== Trousers ====
Early in the 1890s, “slim, straight trousers were news.” (Payne 2, p. 532) Trousers could be plaid or checked as well as the same fabric as the coat and vest.

==== Waistcoats ====
Fancy fabrics and bold trim were not seen much as the more subdued vest dominated the fashion scene.

==== Neck Treatments ====
In the 1860s, men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin.

==== Overcoats ====
“Topcoats included fingertip-length styles made of twill covert cloth. Single-breasted, fly-front overcoats were fashionable too. Roomy overcoats with fur linings and collars warmed the wealthy. Inverness overcoats remained in vogue.” Payne2, p.532

==== Original Text ====
Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards.  A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Notes ===

*Men's suits buttoned higher up than today (Payne, 467)
* Norfolk jackets and sack suits (Payne, 471)
* formal attire, tuxedos with tails, cutaways (Payne, 469)
* Keith Middlemas (https://archive.org/details/storyoffiesta00huxf/page/200/mode/2up?q=fashion)
*Brent Shannon. &quot;Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914.&quot; Victorian Studies 46, no. 4 (Summer 2004): 597–630.

== Hats and headwear ==
[[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]]
[[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]]
Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. 

=== Men's Hats ===
The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.[Payne] According to Blanche Payne, &quot;The high top hat, usually black or dark gray, had reached its characteristic shape by 1798 and dominated the entire nineteenth century.&quot; (457–58) 

Although top hats were the dominant hat in the 19th century, other hats became popular for working classes and lower income middle class. “The style of an individual’s hat varied, depending on fashion and their social position, as well as their profession or chosen activity..” ''Goodman 53 of 460'' Other hats that became necessary and popular include the Derby, the straw Boater, and a flat cap with a short brim. In many cases the class, work activity and income could be determined by what kind of hat was on the head of the wearer. For some men, a hat supporting a particular sport or team was important.

The Derby or Bowler hat was designed by William and Thomas Bowler, brother shopkeepers in 1849. ''(Goodman 55 of 460)'' It cost less than a top hat but  lasted longer and was soon worn by middle class bankers and clerks. Straw boaters were worn by the aristocracy for casual events and working class factory workers and agricultural laborers. By 1901 working class men had changed their preference to the flat caps which became the most popular hat for the workers. 

Headdress for men was an essential part of dress for the entire period of the Victorian age, from the 1830s through the end of the century. Judith Flanders describes the hats worn by men in London, &lt;blockquote&gt;It is difficult to bear in mind the importance of hats as not only markers of class and income, but also as indicators of respectability. [509–519] [George Augustus] Sala commented that &quot;every&quot; man throughout the history of the world &quot;must, necessarily and habitually, wear some kind of covering to his head&quot;. Postmen wore hats, small children wore hats, field labourers and market gardeners wore hats, cricketers, skaters — all sportsmen — wore hats. It was, self-evidently, impossible to go outdoors without one. ... Those in professional occupations wore pot hats, as did clerks and all those with pretensions to middle-class status. Even doctors' delivery boys wore battered hand-me-down pot hats: &quot;the nap rusty, the band a mournful strip of tarnished lace; but still a Hat&quot;, which &quot;stamps him as being associated, in however slender a manner, with a learned profession&quot;. Cloth caps were for labourers, for costers and for boys. ... Artisans wore caps made out of paper, which they folded [510–511] themselves and so could easily replace as they became dirty.&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; (509–511 [of 972]) &lt;/blockquote&gt;A pot-hat is a kind of derby or bowler in men's hats. (Lewandowski, 237)

==== Original Text ====
Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits.

=== Women's Hats ===
For a discussion of the history of plumes and feathers, see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers in ''Victorian Things'']].

==== Original Wikipedia Text ====
During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts.

Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]]
The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shoes ==
The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Cosmetics ==
[[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically less obvious than ours. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were widely used.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tints were sometimes added to face creams. Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}.

Hair color
==Mourning black==
{{See also |Mourning stationery}}
[[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]]
[[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]]

In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid but evolving during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. (Davidoff) The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The mourning dress worn by Queen Victoria (below, right) &quot;shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&amp;searchField=All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;deptids=8&amp;ft=queen+victoria&amp;offset=0&amp;rpp=20&amp;amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dating from 1894–95, Queen Victoria wore this dress as a result of the death of the eldest son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Eddy, in line to the throne.

=== Norms for mourning===

''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne &amp; Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning
|-
| Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey
|-
| Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe ||  –  || 2 months as above
|-
| Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above
|-
| Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || –
|-
| Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || –
|}

The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and &quot;connections&quot; (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of &quot;1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy&quot;). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. It was not uncommon for a widow who did not remarry to wear half-mourning for the rest of her life, except when another death necessitated full mourning. For example, Alexandra, Princess of Wales wore half-mourning for the rest of her life after her eldest son Eddy died in 1894. Empress Elisabeth of Austria did the same, as did Empress Eugénie of France. They reverted to full mourning when appropriate, but they never wore less than half-mourning after their sons' deaths.

Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Technological advancement ==
The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following:

* the mass production of fabrics — for example, &quot;by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year&quot;  [62]
* the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) &quot;wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a &quot;bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: &quot;The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255)
* the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell &quot;lightweight domestic machines&quot; for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen &amp; Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (91 [of 298])
* the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism
* the Jacquard loom: &quot;French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom attachment mechanized the weaving of figured fabrics by 1804.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; (454)

Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}&lt;/ref&gt; Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage.

Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}&lt;/ref&gt; Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly.  In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it.  In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}&lt;/ref&gt; Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}&lt;/ref&gt; Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;/&gt;

dressmakers, couturiers, modistes

== Home decor ==
{{main|Victorian decorative arts}}

Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]].

== Myths and Oversimplifications ==

=== Modesty ===
{{main|Victorian morality}}
{{Original research|section|date=May 2008}}
[[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|&quot;The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages&quot;, from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s.

=== Tight Lacing ===
Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; ()


In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;/&gt; Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian &amp; Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show.

The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today.

There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247:  &quot;I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons.

== Gallery ==
{{gallery
|2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877
Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882
Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}}

== See also ==
* [[Emily Clapham]]
* [[Victorian decorative arts]]
* [[Victorian dress reform]]
* [[Victorian morality]]
* [[Victoriana]]
* [[Women in the Victorian Era]]
* [[Charles Frederick Worth]]

=== Time periods ===
* [[1830s in fashion]]
* [[1840s in fashion]]
* [[1850s in fashion]]
* [[1860s in fashion]]
* [[1870s in fashion]]
* [[1880s in fashion]]
* [[1890s in fashion]]

=== Women's clothing ===
* [[Corset]]
* [[Corset controversy]]
* [[Tightlacing]]
* [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]]
* [[Bodice]]

=== Contemporary interpretations ===
* [[Steampunk]]
* [[Neo-Victorian]]
* [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}}
* Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }}
* [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery
* [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths]
* [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }}
* [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on &quot;A Diary in America&quot;]
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] —  the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs)
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
 |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/
 |title= Victorian Dress
 |work= Fashion, Jewellery &amp; Accessories
 |date= 14 January 2011
 |access-date= 2011-04-03}}
*[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria

{{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Victorian fashion| ]]
[[Category:19th-century fashion|*]]
[[Category:1900s fashion]]
[[Category:History of Western fashion]]
[[Category:19th century in the arts]]

=From ''Women in the Victorian era''=
===Victorian women's fashion===
{{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}}
The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as &quot;unmentionables&quot;). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: &quot;[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them&quot;, in contrast to current norms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}&lt;/ref&gt; The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]:

{{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women.

The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;

Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while &quot;her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;
[[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]]
[[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a &quot;[[divided skirt]]&quot;, which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative &quot;unwomanly&quot; association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century.

Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled &quot;full circle&quot; over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes,&quot; said Koda, &quot;The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order.&quot;

====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion====
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine.
File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s.
File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880).
File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900.
&lt;/gallery&gt;


{{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}}
{{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox writer
| name               = Darach Ó Scolaí
| image              = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG
| alt                = Man holding prize-winning book
| caption            = Ó Scolaí in 2019
| birth_name         = Darach Ó Scolaí
| birth_date         = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}}
| birth_place        = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland
| death_date         = 
| death_place        = 
| occupation         = Writer, artist, publisher
| alma_mater         = [[University of Galway]]
| years_active       = 1998–present
| genre            = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults
| other_names        = 
| spouse             = 
| children           = 3
| awards             = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]]
| signature          = 
| website            = 
}}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]]


== Darach Ó Scolaí ==
Darach Ó Scolaí (&lt;small&gt;Irish:&lt;/small&gt; [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &quot;one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”&lt;ref&gt;Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in &quot;Táin Bó Cuailnge.&quot; ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.&lt;/ref&gt;

Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry.

Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. 

Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. 

== Life ==
Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Writing and Publishing ===
Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. 

None of his works has been translated into English. 

==== Leabhar Breac ====
In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. 

Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically &quot;superb [thar cionn]&quot; quality of the design and production of the &quot;physical book [leabhar fisiciúil].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt; Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well).

Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland.

=== Stage and Screen ===

==== Rosg ====
In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. 

==== Ealaín ar Oileán ====
In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; until 2013.

Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}&lt;/ref&gt; and writer&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Salamandar ====
In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Works ==

=== Novels ===
* [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and &quot;named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Retellings, Translations and Editions ===
The retellings and translations are into modern Irish.

* ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;  &quot;''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;
* ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling  of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
* ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

=== For Young Readers ===
Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. 

The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

* ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000.
* ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000.
* ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.
* ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.

==== Translations ====

* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&amp;oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
* Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas&quot;), Leabhar Breac, 2022.
'''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels'''''

Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&amp;oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among &quot;The 30 Irish books that Irish people love.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
'''''Other Translations for Children'''''

Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín &amp; Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand.

=== Plays and Screenplays ===

==== Stage Plays ====
Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac.

* ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, &quot;dance and music drama,&quot; co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre.
* '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Screenplays ====

* ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); &quot;a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&amp;aid=70&amp;rid=3917&amp;tpl=filmography_dets&amp;only=1&amp;force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film &amp; Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh &amp; Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg.
* ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&amp;apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&amp;apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Nonfiction ===
Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]:

* “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014.
* The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory &amp; Forgetfulness&quot;]), 2014.
* “Rithim agus Réim” (&quot;Rhythm and Register&quot;), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., &quot;From Talk to Twitter&quot;), 2014.
* Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''.
* “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., &quot;The Madmen in Charge&quot;), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel.

== Critical Reception ==
Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}&lt;/ref&gt; “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;   

=== Original Works ===
Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,&lt;blockquote&gt;This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': &lt;blockquote&gt;In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript &quot;Saltair an Easpaig&quot; (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, &quot;The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far:
Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Retellings and Translations ===

==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ====
''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;Cathal Poirtéir says, &quot;The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's &quot;a wonderful gutsy telling&quot; of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''Deirdre'' ====

Marie Whelton, in &quot;Léann Teanga&quot; (&quot;Language Studies&quot;), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
=== Works for Young Readers ===
Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was &quot;Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in &quot;Bodach an Chóta Lachna&quot; https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Awards and Honors ==
Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category.

=== Oireachtas Prize ===
The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024.

* 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'')
* 2024, for ''Bódléar''

=== Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” ===
The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018.
* ''Bódléar'', 2025.

==== De Bhaldraithe Award ====
The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

* ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

==== Other ====

* Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005
* Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006
* The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017

== External Links ==

* Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/
* Leabhar Breac Facebook pages:
* Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ &lt;nowiki&gt;http://ww&lt;/nowiki&gt;w.rosg.ie/en/]
* Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014

* Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/
* Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House).

== Primordial Ooze ==

* Known for his sensitivity to language and voices.
* Finish scanning through JSTOR
* Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits
* Check Goodreads
* Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.)
* Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article
* Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up
* Write Irish National Biography (&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.dib.ie&lt;/nowiki&gt;) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say.
* Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia
* Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right

=== Not Placed Yet ===

* &quot;So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]&quot; — &quot;32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)&quot; [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí].&quot; &quot;Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;
* &quot;Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Things Taken Out for Now ===
“’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’&quot;

Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article):

This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly &lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;]

“The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist &amp; playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007)

''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.'''

*William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
*Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.

*Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese''


'''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series'''''

Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;:

*Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
'''''For &quot;First Readers&quot; (children to 6 years old or so)'''''

These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ:
*Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
'''''Bruno Heitz'''''

Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí translated these:

*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020
*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020.

'''''Books for Toddlers'''''

Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí:
*Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
*Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
* Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019.
'''''Board Books (for babies)'''''

J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai.
*J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.

==== Gradam Réics Carló ====
The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
      <sha1>5iy5tp6064offtm3s3mjz3kwc1p98ed</sha1>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina (Crabronidae) */  ref</comment>
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      <text bytes="31408" sha1="24cqpyap56oh17whlx0hfkw2d40jwti" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Info--&gt;

= African wasps of the tribe Oxybelini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=
Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 359-370 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed the tribe worldwide. Antropov (1999-2007) and Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:55-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed African species.&lt;br&gt;

The submarginal cell in the forewing is fused with the discoidal cells; most species have metanotal squamae (paired, scale-like or plate-like projections of the metanotum) and a mucro (an extension of the propodeum).&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976/&gt;
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
GL.96 Oxybelus uniglumis m.jpg|An ''Oxybelus uniglumis'' specimen from Finland showing the wing venation typical of the Oxybelini
Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|An ''Oxybelus'' wasp showing the mucro projecting above the wing 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Genus ''Belarnoldus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;  ==
This genus has a single species, described as ''Belomicrus crassus'' by [[w:George Arnold (entomologist)|Arnold]] in 1936; it differs from other Oxybelini in having a compressed scape with a longitudinal carina on the ventral (lower) side.&lt;ref name=Antropov2007/&gt; The body is black; parts of the clypeus and mandible, squamae and tarsi are brownish; and the apical edges of the first three metasomal tergites are dark brown.   

*''Belarnoldus crassus'' (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa; Springbok, Kamieskroon, Matjesfontein)

== Genus ''Belokohlus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ==

*''Belokohlus ferrieri'' (Kohl, 1924) (South Africa)

== Genus Belomicrinus Antropov, 2000 ==

Belomicrinus luteosquamatus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

Belomicrinus minutissimus (Arnold, 1936) (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicroides Kohl, 1899 ==

Belomicroides arenarius Arnold, 1960 (Zimbabwe)

Belomicroides clypeatus Antropov, 2002 (South Africa)

Belomicroides erythrogaster Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides marleyi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides maximiliani Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides pictus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides pictus chrysoptilus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides politus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides rift Antropov, 2002 (Kenya)

Belomicroides veronicae Antropov, 2002 (Ethiopia)

Belomicroides woji Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicrus Costa, 1867 ==

Belomicrus mirificus Kohl, 1905 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Brimocelus Arnold, 1927 ==

Brimocelus radiatus (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Brimocelus roosevelti Antropov, 2000 (South Africa)

Brimocelus schwarzi Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Gessus Antropov, 2001 ==

Gessus capensis Antropov, 2001 (South Africa)

== Genus Minimicroides Antropov, 2000 ==

Minimicroides perexiguus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Nototis Arnold, 1927 ==

Nototis bicornutus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Nototis falcidens Antropov, 2007 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelomorpha Brauns, 1897 ==

Oxybelomorpha braunsii (Kohl, 1923) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha funesta (Arnold, 1929) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha gessi Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha imitans Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha kohlii Brauns in Kohl, 1896 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha nitens Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha pseudosordida Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha pulawskii Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha rhodesiana (Arnold, 1927) (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelomorpha rubicunda Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha rufiventris (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha separata Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sgessae Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sordida (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha turneri (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha wojciechi Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelus Latreille, 1796 ==
Reviewed by Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold-Oxybelus1927&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:76-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; and Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976oxy&gt;https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/364/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;.

Oxybelus acutissimus Bischoff, 1912 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus acutissimus propinquus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus aethiopicus Cameron, 1906 (South Africa)

Oxybelus angustus de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus arnoldi Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus bechuanae Arnold, 1936 (Botswana)

Oxybelus bicornutus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia, South Africa)

Oxybelus braunsi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus congophilus Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus coniferus Arnold, 1951 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus cristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus curviscutis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus dissimilis Arnold, 1934 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus eburneoguttatus Arnold, 1952 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis nyassae Arnold, 1927 (Tanzania)

Oxybelus flaviventris Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus fraudulentus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus harraricus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus hessei Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus imperialis Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus lepturus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus limatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus lingula Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus matabele Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus metopias Kohl, 1894 (Mozambique)

Oxybelus nasutus Bischoff, 1913 (Namibia)

Oxybelus natalensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus neuvillei Magretti, 1908 (Kenya)

Oxybelus pallidus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia, Tanzania)

Oxybelus paucipunctatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus peringueyi de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus perornatus Arnold, 1945 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus pictus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus pilosus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus rubrocaudatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus ruficaudis Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

Oxybelus ruficaudis melanarius Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus solitarius Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus stevensoni Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus subcristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus taschenbergi Kohl, 1875 (South Africa)

Oxybelus willowmorensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus woosnami Arnold, 1927 (Botswana, South Africa)

Oxybelus zavattarii Guiglia, 1943 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Wojus Antropov, 1999 ==

Wojus inopinatus Antropov, 1999 (South Africa)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=
Diagnosis of the South African genera requires details that are often difficult to see in photographs.&lt;ref name=Pulawski2007&gt;Pulawski, W. J. (2007). The wasp genus Tachysphex Kohl, 1883, of Sahara, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Madagascar (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Crabronidae). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (Fourth Series) 58, Supplement 1:1-698. Available through:
http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2007_African_Tachysphex.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;
 

== Genus ''Gastrosericus'' ==
There are 25 Afrotropical species; four in South Africa.

== Genus ''Kohliella'' Brauns, 1910 &lt;ref&gt;http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35572001&lt;/ref&gt;==

There are three species of ''Kohliella''; two are Afrotropical.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt; 

''Kohliella alaris'' is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe; it hunts tree crickets.&lt;ref&gt;Gess, S.K. &amp; Gess, F.W. 2014. Wasps and bees in southern Africa. SANBI Biodiversity Series 24. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. p. 71-72. https://archive.org/details/waspsbeesinsouth24gess/page/70/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genus ''Parapiagetia'' ==


== Genus ''Tachytes'' ==
There are 79 Afrotropical species; 15 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Tachysphex '' ==
There are 128 Afrotropical species; 41 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Larropsis '' ==

''Larropsis (Ancistromma) obliqua'' (F. Smith); description in Arnold, 1923b:218 as ''Tachytes obliquus''
== Genus ''Tachytella '' ==
== Genus ''Prosopigastra'' ==
== Genus ''Holotachysphex '' ==
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= Southern African wasp species of Tribe Trypoxylini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]]) =

== Genus ''Pison'' Jurine, 1808 ==

Arnold ([http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327574 1924, 1-10]) has a key and descriptions.

*''Pison allonymum'' Schulz, 1906 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance 1.5 to 2.5 times the diameter of an ocellus;
**Fairly long, whitish or silvery pilosity on head and thorax, more dense on the temples than elsewhere.&lt;ref name=Arnold1924&gt;Arnold, G. (1924) The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part V. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 11:1-4 http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327575&lt;/ref&gt;

*''Pison atrum'' (Spinola, 1808:253) described by Cameron as ''Pison montanum'' (Kenya, South Africa, Zambia)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance not greater than the diameter of an ocellus;
**Pronotal collar longer than in ''allonymum''.

*''Pison transvaalense'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa to Tanzania and Uganda)
**Head and thorax dull; finely and closely punctured;
**Distance between the posterior ocelli and the eyes is equal to a third to a half of the diameter of the ocellus.


*''Pison auratum'' Shuckard, 1838 (an Australian species; see Pulawski, 2018:85 http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2018.pdf)

*''Pison denticeps'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; &quot;Transvaal&quot;. Two cubital cells; he only record seems to be the description)

*''Pison repentinum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison rufitarse'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison scruposum'' Arnold, 1955 (Zimbabwe)

== Genus ''Trypoxylon'' Latreille, 1796 ==

*''Trypoxylon abditum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon algoense'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon arnoldi'' Menke, 1976 (South Africa, Tanzania)

*''Trypoxylon braunsi'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon capense'' Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon cataractae'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon chirindense'' Arnold, 1936 (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon foveatum'' Cameron, 1904 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon inconstans'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon infimum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon kohli'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon letiferum'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon lissonotum'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon montivagum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon nodosum'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon punctatissimum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon stevensoni'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon stroudi'' Gribodo, 1884 (Ethiopia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo)

*''Trypoxylon testaceipes'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon triste'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

= Pompilidae of South Africa =
== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg
Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg
Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg
Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg
Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg
Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;
*The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent.
*
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) ==
*The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections.
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus''
Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus''
Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex''
Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg|
Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
=== Species  with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen ===
Some parts may be brown.

*''Java atropos''
*''Cyphononyx obscurus''
*''Hemipepsis vindex''
*''Hemipepsis vespertilio''
*''Hemipepsis braunsi''
*''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
&lt;br&gt;
=== Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red ===
*''Cyphononyx optimus''
*''Paracyphononyx zonatus''
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg
Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg
Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg

&lt;/gallery&gt;
*With fuscous (darker) wing apex
*One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated)
*Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted)


&lt;br&gt;
== South African Ceropalinae ==
Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020]
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) 
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa)
**''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
**''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
**= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319
*''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
&lt;br&gt;

==Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).&lt;ref name=Madl2020&gt;Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84.
[https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;


Ceropalinae can be defined by:&lt;ref name=Brothers1993&gt;Brothers, D. J. &amp; Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. &amp; Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Waichert2015&gt; Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., &amp; Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa &amp; Schmid-Egger, 2025)&lt;ref name=CoL2025&gt; Kroupa, A. S., &amp; Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv &lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].&lt;br&gt;

=== Genus ''Ceropales'' ===
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia)
*''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia)
*''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone)
*''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia)
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal)
*''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo)
*''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal)
**''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
*''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea)
*''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel)
*''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania)
**''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
*''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia)
&lt;br&gt;
=== Genus ''Irenangelus'' ===
*''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar)
&lt;br&gt;

==Eumeninae==
Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:&lt;br&gt;
''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;

==Ants==
'''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)'''

Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23)
Amblyoponinae              7
Dolichoderinae           630
Dorylinae                 1 167
Formicinae            10 396       Camponotus   6 090; Lepisiota 1 046
Myrmicinae              8 484       Crematogaster  1 786;   Pheidole  1 468;   Messor  1 156 
Ponerinae                1 623
Proceratiinae                  3
Pseudomyrmecinae   296


Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' &lt;br&gt;

Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' &lt;br&gt;

Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' &lt;br&gt; 

Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' &lt;br&gt;

Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' &lt;br&gt;

Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera  &lt;br&gt;

Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera &lt;br&gt;


&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae 
Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae 
Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae 
Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae
Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae 
Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae  
Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae 
Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae 
AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae 
Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae 
Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae 
Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae 
Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== N-P interactions ==
Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770.
'''Abstract'''
Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective.

==Diptera==
===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies===
====Food detection====
*''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. 
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392
*It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
====Courtship====
*Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
*''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays.
**https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062
*Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata''
**https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x
====Mimics for defense====
*Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae.
**https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ 
*Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging.
**https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612
*Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders.
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families===
The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:&lt;br&gt;

* '''Carnoidea'''
** Acartophthalmidae         0
** Australimyzidae           0
** Braulidae (bee lice)         1
** Canacidae (beach flies)         3
** Carnidae (bird flies)         0
** Chloropidae (frit flies)         259
** Cryptochetidae              1
** Inbiomyiidae                0
** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Diopsoidea'''
** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies)    545
** Gobryidae                   0
** Megamerinidae               0
** Nothybidae                   0
** Psilidae (rust flies)         29
** Somatiidae                   0
** Syringogastridae            0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Ephydroidea'''
** Camillidae  0
** Campichoetidae   0
** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies)   15
** Diastatidae 0
** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312
** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Lauxanioidea'''
** Celyphidae (beetle flies)  0
** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies)  24
** Cremifaniidae  0
** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies)  710
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Nerioidea'''
** Cypselosomatidae  0
** Fergusoninidae  0
** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies)  245
** Neriidae  109
** Strongylophthalmyiidae  0
** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies)  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Opomyzoidea'''
** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161
** Anthomyzidae  3
** Asteiidae  4
** Aulacigastridae  2
** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2
** Marginidae  0
** Neminidae 0 
** Neurochaetidae 0
** Odiniidae  0
** Opomyzidae  4
** Periscelididae  1
** Teratomyzidae  0
** Xenasteiidae  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sciomyzoidea''' 
** Coelopidae (kelp flies)  51
** Conopidae (thick-headed flies)  192
** Dryomyzidae  1
** Helcomyzidae  0
** Helosciomyzidae  0
** Heterocheilidae  0
** Huttoninidae  0
** Natalimyzidae  0
** Phaeomyiidae  0
** Ropalomeridae  1
** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies)  67
** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies)  269
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sphaeroceroidea'''
** Chyromyidae (golden flies)  19
** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies)  151
** Nannodastiidae  0
** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies)  48
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Tephritoidea'''
** Ctenostylidae  1
** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47
** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies)  5
** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1
** Platystomatidae (signal flies)  683
** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies)  119
** Richardiidae  0
** Tachiniscidae  2
** Tephritidae (fruit flies)  1,759
** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165

== References ==</text>
      <sha1>24cqpyap56oh17whlx0hfkw2d40jwti</sha1>
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= African wasps of the tribe Oxybelini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=
Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p359&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 359-370 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed the tribe worldwide. Antropov (1999-2007) and Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:55-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed African species.&lt;br&gt;

The submarginal cell in the forewing is fused with the discoidal cells; most species have metanotal squamae (paired, scale-like or plate-like projections of the metanotum) and a mucro (an extension of the propodeum).&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976/&gt;
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
GL.96 Oxybelus uniglumis m.jpg|An ''Oxybelus uniglumis'' specimen from Finland showing the wing venation typical of the Oxybelini
Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|An ''Oxybelus'' wasp showing the mucro projecting above the wing 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Genus ''Belarnoldus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;  ==
This genus has a single species, described as ''Belomicrus crassus'' by [[w:George Arnold (entomologist)|Arnold]] in 1936; it differs from other Oxybelini in having a compressed scape with a longitudinal carina on the ventral (lower) side.&lt;ref name=Antropov2007/&gt; The body is black; parts of the clypeus and mandible, squamae and tarsi are brownish; and the apical edges of the first three metasomal tergites are dark brown.   

*''Belarnoldus crassus'' (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa; Springbok, Kamieskroon, Matjesfontein)

== Genus ''Belokohlus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ==

*''Belokohlus ferrieri'' (Kohl, 1924) (South Africa)

== Genus Belomicrinus Antropov, 2000 ==

Belomicrinus luteosquamatus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

Belomicrinus minutissimus (Arnold, 1936) (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicroides Kohl, 1899 ==

Belomicroides arenarius Arnold, 1960 (Zimbabwe)

Belomicroides clypeatus Antropov, 2002 (South Africa)

Belomicroides erythrogaster Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides marleyi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides maximiliani Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides pictus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides pictus chrysoptilus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides politus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides rift Antropov, 2002 (Kenya)

Belomicroides veronicae Antropov, 2002 (Ethiopia)

Belomicroides woji Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicrus Costa, 1867 ==

Belomicrus mirificus Kohl, 1905 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Brimocelus Arnold, 1927 ==

Brimocelus radiatus (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Brimocelus roosevelti Antropov, 2000 (South Africa)

Brimocelus schwarzi Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Gessus Antropov, 2001 ==

Gessus capensis Antropov, 2001 (South Africa)

== Genus Minimicroides Antropov, 2000 ==

Minimicroides perexiguus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Nototis Arnold, 1927 ==

Nototis bicornutus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Nototis falcidens Antropov, 2007 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelomorpha Brauns, 1897 ==

Oxybelomorpha braunsii (Kohl, 1923) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha funesta (Arnold, 1929) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha gessi Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha imitans Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha kohlii Brauns in Kohl, 1896 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha nitens Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha pseudosordida Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha pulawskii Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha rhodesiana (Arnold, 1927) (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelomorpha rubicunda Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha rufiventris (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha separata Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sgessae Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sordida (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha turneri (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha wojciechi Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelus Latreille, 1796 ==
Reviewed by Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold-Oxybelus1927&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:76-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; and Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976oxy&gt;https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/364/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;.

Oxybelus acutissimus Bischoff, 1912 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus acutissimus propinquus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus aethiopicus Cameron, 1906 (South Africa)

Oxybelus angustus de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus arnoldi Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus bechuanae Arnold, 1936 (Botswana)

Oxybelus bicornutus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia, South Africa)

Oxybelus braunsi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus congophilus Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus coniferus Arnold, 1951 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus cristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus curviscutis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus dissimilis Arnold, 1934 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus eburneoguttatus Arnold, 1952 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis nyassae Arnold, 1927 (Tanzania)

Oxybelus flaviventris Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus fraudulentus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus harraricus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus hessei Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus imperialis Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus lepturus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus limatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus lingula Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus matabele Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus metopias Kohl, 1894 (Mozambique)

Oxybelus nasutus Bischoff, 1913 (Namibia)

Oxybelus natalensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus neuvillei Magretti, 1908 (Kenya)

Oxybelus pallidus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia, Tanzania)

Oxybelus paucipunctatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus peringueyi de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus perornatus Arnold, 1945 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus pictus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus pilosus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus rubrocaudatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus ruficaudis Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

Oxybelus ruficaudis melanarius Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus solitarius Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus stevensoni Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus subcristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus taschenbergi Kohl, 1875 (South Africa)

Oxybelus willowmorensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus woosnami Arnold, 1927 (Botswana, South Africa)

Oxybelus zavattarii Guiglia, 1943 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Wojus Antropov, 1999 ==

Wojus inopinatus Antropov, 1999 (South Africa)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;


= South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=

Diagnosis of the South African genera requires details that are often difficult to see in photographs.&lt;ref name=Pulawski2007&gt;Pulawski, W. J. (2007). The wasp genus Tachysphex Kohl, 1883, of Sahara, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Madagascar (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Crabronidae). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (Fourth Series) 58, Supplement 1:1-698. Available through:
http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2007_African_Tachysphex.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p359&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 359-370 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;
 

== Genus ''Gastrosericus'' ==
There are 25 Afrotropical species; four in South Africa.

== Genus ''Kohliella'' Brauns, 1910 &lt;ref&gt;http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35572001&lt;/ref&gt;==

There are three species of ''Kohliella''; two are Afrotropical.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt; 

''Kohliella alaris'' is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe; it hunts tree crickets.&lt;ref&gt;Gess, S.K. &amp; Gess, F.W. 2014. Wasps and bees in southern Africa. SANBI Biodiversity Series 24. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. p. 71-72. https://archive.org/details/waspsbeesinsouth24gess/page/70/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genus ''Parapiagetia'' ==


== Genus ''Tachytes'' ==
There are 79 Afrotropical species; 15 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Tachysphex '' ==
There are 128 Afrotropical species; 41 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Larropsis '' ==

''Larropsis (Ancistromma) obliqua'' (F. Smith); description in Arnold, 1923b:218 as ''Tachytes obliquus''
== Genus ''Tachytella '' ==
== Genus ''Prosopigastra'' ==
== Genus ''Holotachysphex '' ==
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= Southern African wasp species of Tribe Trypoxylini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]]) =

== Genus ''Pison'' Jurine, 1808 ==

Arnold ([http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327574 1924, 1-10]) has a key and descriptions.

*''Pison allonymum'' Schulz, 1906 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance 1.5 to 2.5 times the diameter of an ocellus;
**Fairly long, whitish or silvery pilosity on head and thorax, more dense on the temples than elsewhere.&lt;ref name=Arnold1924&gt;Arnold, G. (1924) The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part V. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 11:1-4 http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327575&lt;/ref&gt;

*''Pison atrum'' (Spinola, 1808:253) described by Cameron as ''Pison montanum'' (Kenya, South Africa, Zambia)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance not greater than the diameter of an ocellus;
**Pronotal collar longer than in ''allonymum''.

*''Pison transvaalense'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa to Tanzania and Uganda)
**Head and thorax dull; finely and closely punctured;
**Distance between the posterior ocelli and the eyes is equal to a third to a half of the diameter of the ocellus.


*''Pison auratum'' Shuckard, 1838 (an Australian species; see Pulawski, 2018:85 http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2018.pdf)

*''Pison denticeps'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; &quot;Transvaal&quot;. Two cubital cells; he only record seems to be the description)

*''Pison repentinum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison rufitarse'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison scruposum'' Arnold, 1955 (Zimbabwe)

== Genus ''Trypoxylon'' Latreille, 1796 ==

*''Trypoxylon abditum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon algoense'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon arnoldi'' Menke, 1976 (South Africa, Tanzania)

*''Trypoxylon braunsi'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon capense'' Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon cataractae'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon chirindense'' Arnold, 1936 (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon foveatum'' Cameron, 1904 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon inconstans'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon infimum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon kohli'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon letiferum'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon lissonotum'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon montivagum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon nodosum'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon punctatissimum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon stevensoni'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon stroudi'' Gribodo, 1884 (Ethiopia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo)

*''Trypoxylon testaceipes'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon triste'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

= Pompilidae of South Africa =
== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg
Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg
Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg
Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg
Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg
Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;
*The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent.
*
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) ==
*The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections.
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus''
Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus''
Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex''
Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg|
Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
=== Species  with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen ===
Some parts may be brown.

*''Java atropos''
*''Cyphononyx obscurus''
*''Hemipepsis vindex''
*''Hemipepsis vespertilio''
*''Hemipepsis braunsi''
*''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
&lt;br&gt;
=== Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red ===
*''Cyphononyx optimus''
*''Paracyphononyx zonatus''
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg
Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg
Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg

&lt;/gallery&gt;
*With fuscous (darker) wing apex
*One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated)
*Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted)


&lt;br&gt;
== South African Ceropalinae ==
Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020]
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) 
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa)
**''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
**''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
**= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319
*''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
&lt;br&gt;

==Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).&lt;ref name=Madl2020&gt;Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84.
[https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;


Ceropalinae can be defined by:&lt;ref name=Brothers1993&gt;Brothers, D. J. &amp; Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. &amp; Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Waichert2015&gt; Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., &amp; Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa &amp; Schmid-Egger, 2025)&lt;ref name=CoL2025&gt; Kroupa, A. S., &amp; Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv &lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].&lt;br&gt;

=== Genus ''Ceropales'' ===
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia)
*''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia)
*''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone)
*''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia)
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal)
*''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo)
*''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal)
**''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
*''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea)
*''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel)
*''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania)
**''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
*''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia)
&lt;br&gt;
=== Genus ''Irenangelus'' ===
*''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar)
&lt;br&gt;

==Eumeninae==
Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:&lt;br&gt;
''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;

==Ants==
'''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)'''

Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23)
Amblyoponinae              7
Dolichoderinae           630
Dorylinae                 1 167
Formicinae            10 396       Camponotus   6 090; Lepisiota 1 046
Myrmicinae              8 484       Crematogaster  1 786;   Pheidole  1 468;   Messor  1 156 
Ponerinae                1 623
Proceratiinae                  3
Pseudomyrmecinae   296


Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' &lt;br&gt;

Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' &lt;br&gt;

Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' &lt;br&gt; 

Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' &lt;br&gt;

Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' &lt;br&gt;

Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera  &lt;br&gt;

Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera &lt;br&gt;


&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae 
Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae 
Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae 
Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae
Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae 
Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae  
Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae 
Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae 
AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae 
Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae 
Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae 
Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae 
Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== N-P interactions ==
Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770.
'''Abstract'''
Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective.

==Diptera==
===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies===
====Food detection====
*''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. 
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392
*It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
====Courtship====
*Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
*''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays.
**https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062
*Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata''
**https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x
====Mimics for defense====
*Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae.
**https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ 
*Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging.
**https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612
*Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders.
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families===
The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:&lt;br&gt;

* '''Carnoidea'''
** Acartophthalmidae         0
** Australimyzidae           0
** Braulidae (bee lice)         1
** Canacidae (beach flies)         3
** Carnidae (bird flies)         0
** Chloropidae (frit flies)         259
** Cryptochetidae              1
** Inbiomyiidae                0
** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Diopsoidea'''
** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies)    545
** Gobryidae                   0
** Megamerinidae               0
** Nothybidae                   0
** Psilidae (rust flies)         29
** Somatiidae                   0
** Syringogastridae            0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Ephydroidea'''
** Camillidae  0
** Campichoetidae   0
** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies)   15
** Diastatidae 0
** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312
** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Lauxanioidea'''
** Celyphidae (beetle flies)  0
** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies)  24
** Cremifaniidae  0
** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies)  710
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Nerioidea'''
** Cypselosomatidae  0
** Fergusoninidae  0
** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies)  245
** Neriidae  109
** Strongylophthalmyiidae  0
** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies)  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Opomyzoidea'''
** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161
** Anthomyzidae  3
** Asteiidae  4
** Aulacigastridae  2
** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2
** Marginidae  0
** Neminidae 0 
** Neurochaetidae 0
** Odiniidae  0
** Opomyzidae  4
** Periscelididae  1
** Teratomyzidae  0
** Xenasteiidae  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sciomyzoidea''' 
** Coelopidae (kelp flies)  51
** Conopidae (thick-headed flies)  192
** Dryomyzidae  1
** Helcomyzidae  0
** Helosciomyzidae  0
** Heterocheilidae  0
** Huttoninidae  0
** Natalimyzidae  0
** Phaeomyiidae  0
** Ropalomeridae  1
** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies)  67
** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies)  269
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sphaeroceroidea'''
** Chyromyidae (golden flies)  19
** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies)  151
** Nannodastiidae  0
** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies)  48
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Tephritoidea'''
** Ctenostylidae  1
** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47
** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies)  5
** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1
** Platystomatidae (signal flies)  683
** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies)  119
** Richardiidae  0
** Tachiniscidae  2
** Tephritidae (fruit flies)  1,759
** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165

== References ==</text>
      <sha1>e2fnam2jspnq8se6k736sz459u79xi9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2842634</id>
      <parentid>2842633</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina (Crabronidae) */</comment>
      <origin>2842634</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="31665" sha1="jqqcsndq2x62ax7ozyb4yc8hxf688ol" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Info--&gt;

= African wasps of the tribe Oxybelini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=
Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p359&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 359-370 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed the tribe worldwide. Antropov (1999-2007) and Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:55-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed African species.&lt;br&gt;

The submarginal cell in the forewing is fused with the discoidal cells; most species have metanotal squamae (paired, scale-like or plate-like projections of the metanotum) and a mucro (an extension of the propodeum).&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976/&gt;
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
GL.96 Oxybelus uniglumis m.jpg|An ''Oxybelus uniglumis'' specimen from Finland showing the wing venation typical of the Oxybelini
Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|An ''Oxybelus'' wasp showing the mucro projecting above the wing 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Genus ''Belarnoldus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;  ==
This genus has a single species, described as ''Belomicrus crassus'' by [[w:George Arnold (entomologist)|Arnold]] in 1936; it differs from other Oxybelini in having a compressed scape with a longitudinal carina on the ventral (lower) side.&lt;ref name=Antropov2007/&gt; The body is black; parts of the clypeus and mandible, squamae and tarsi are brownish; and the apical edges of the first three metasomal tergites are dark brown.   

*''Belarnoldus crassus'' (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa; Springbok, Kamieskroon, Matjesfontein)

== Genus ''Belokohlus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ==

*''Belokohlus ferrieri'' (Kohl, 1924) (South Africa)

== Genus Belomicrinus Antropov, 2000 ==

Belomicrinus luteosquamatus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

Belomicrinus minutissimus (Arnold, 1936) (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicroides Kohl, 1899 ==

Belomicroides arenarius Arnold, 1960 (Zimbabwe)

Belomicroides clypeatus Antropov, 2002 (South Africa)

Belomicroides erythrogaster Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides marleyi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides maximiliani Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides pictus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides pictus chrysoptilus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides politus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides rift Antropov, 2002 (Kenya)

Belomicroides veronicae Antropov, 2002 (Ethiopia)

Belomicroides woji Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicrus Costa, 1867 ==

Belomicrus mirificus Kohl, 1905 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Brimocelus Arnold, 1927 ==

Brimocelus radiatus (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Brimocelus roosevelti Antropov, 2000 (South Africa)

Brimocelus schwarzi Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Gessus Antropov, 2001 ==

Gessus capensis Antropov, 2001 (South Africa)

== Genus Minimicroides Antropov, 2000 ==

Minimicroides perexiguus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Nototis Arnold, 1927 ==

Nototis bicornutus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Nototis falcidens Antropov, 2007 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelomorpha Brauns, 1897 ==

Oxybelomorpha braunsii (Kohl, 1923) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha funesta (Arnold, 1929) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha gessi Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha imitans Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha kohlii Brauns in Kohl, 1896 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha nitens Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha pseudosordida Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha pulawskii Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha rhodesiana (Arnold, 1927) (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelomorpha rubicunda Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha rufiventris (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha separata Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sgessae Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sordida (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha turneri (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha wojciechi Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelus Latreille, 1796 ==
Reviewed by Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold-Oxybelus1927&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:76-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; and Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976oxy&gt;https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/364/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;.

Oxybelus acutissimus Bischoff, 1912 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus acutissimus propinquus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus aethiopicus Cameron, 1906 (South Africa)

Oxybelus angustus de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus arnoldi Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus bechuanae Arnold, 1936 (Botswana)

Oxybelus bicornutus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia, South Africa)

Oxybelus braunsi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus congophilus Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus coniferus Arnold, 1951 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus cristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus curviscutis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus dissimilis Arnold, 1934 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus eburneoguttatus Arnold, 1952 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis nyassae Arnold, 1927 (Tanzania)

Oxybelus flaviventris Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus fraudulentus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus harraricus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus hessei Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus imperialis Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus lepturus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus limatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus lingula Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus matabele Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus metopias Kohl, 1894 (Mozambique)

Oxybelus nasutus Bischoff, 1913 (Namibia)

Oxybelus natalensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus neuvillei Magretti, 1908 (Kenya)

Oxybelus pallidus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia, Tanzania)

Oxybelus paucipunctatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus peringueyi de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus perornatus Arnold, 1945 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus pictus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus pilosus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus rubrocaudatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus ruficaudis Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

Oxybelus ruficaudis melanarius Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus solitarius Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus stevensoni Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus subcristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus taschenbergi Kohl, 1875 (South Africa)

Oxybelus willowmorensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus woosnami Arnold, 1927 (Botswana, South Africa)

Oxybelus zavattarii Guiglia, 1943 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Wojus Antropov, 1999 ==

Wojus inopinatus Antropov, 1999 (South Africa)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;


= South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=

Diagnosis of the South African genera requires details that are often difficult to see in photographs.&lt;ref name=Pulawski2007&gt;Pulawski, W. J. (2007). The wasp genus Tachysphex Kohl, 1883, of Sahara, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Madagascar (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Crabronidae). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (Fourth Series) 58, Supplement 1:1-698. Available through:
http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2007_African_Tachysphex.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p252&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 252-286 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;
 

== Genus ''Gastrosericus'' ==
There are 25 Afrotropical species; four in South Africa.

== Genus ''Kohliella'' Brauns, 1910 &lt;ref&gt;http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35572001&lt;/ref&gt;==

There are three species of ''Kohliella''; two are Afrotropical.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt; 

''Kohliella alaris'' is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe; it hunts tree crickets.&lt;ref&gt;Gess, S.K. &amp; Gess, F.W. 2014. Wasps and bees in southern Africa. SANBI Biodiversity Series 24. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. p. 71-72. https://archive.org/details/waspsbeesinsouth24gess/page/70/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genus ''Parapiagetia'' ==


== Genus ''Tachytes'' ==
There are 79 Afrotropical species; 15 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Tachysphex '' ==
There are 128 Afrotropical species; 41 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Larropsis '' ==

''Larropsis (Ancistromma) obliqua'' (F. Smith); description in Arnold, 1923b:218 as ''Tachytes obliquus''
== Genus ''Tachytella '' ==
== Genus ''Prosopigastra'' ==
== Genus ''Holotachysphex '' ==
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= Southern African wasp species of Tribe Trypoxylini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]]) =

== Genus ''Pison'' Jurine, 1808 ==

Arnold ([http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327574 1924, 1-10]) has a key and descriptions.

*''Pison allonymum'' Schulz, 1906 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance 1.5 to 2.5 times the diameter of an ocellus;
**Fairly long, whitish or silvery pilosity on head and thorax, more dense on the temples than elsewhere.&lt;ref name=Arnold1924&gt;Arnold, G. (1924) The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part V. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 11:1-4 http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327575&lt;/ref&gt;

*''Pison atrum'' (Spinola, 1808:253) described by Cameron as ''Pison montanum'' (Kenya, South Africa, Zambia)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance not greater than the diameter of an ocellus;
**Pronotal collar longer than in ''allonymum''.

*''Pison transvaalense'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa to Tanzania and Uganda)
**Head and thorax dull; finely and closely punctured;
**Distance between the posterior ocelli and the eyes is equal to a third to a half of the diameter of the ocellus.


*''Pison auratum'' Shuckard, 1838 (an Australian species; see Pulawski, 2018:85 http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2018.pdf)

*''Pison denticeps'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; &quot;Transvaal&quot;. Two cubital cells; he only record seems to be the description)

*''Pison repentinum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison rufitarse'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison scruposum'' Arnold, 1955 (Zimbabwe)

== Genus ''Trypoxylon'' Latreille, 1796 ==

*''Trypoxylon abditum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon algoense'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon arnoldi'' Menke, 1976 (South Africa, Tanzania)

*''Trypoxylon braunsi'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon capense'' Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon cataractae'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon chirindense'' Arnold, 1936 (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon foveatum'' Cameron, 1904 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon inconstans'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon infimum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon kohli'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon letiferum'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon lissonotum'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon montivagum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon nodosum'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon punctatissimum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon stevensoni'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon stroudi'' Gribodo, 1884 (Ethiopia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo)

*''Trypoxylon testaceipes'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon triste'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

= Pompilidae of South Africa =
== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg
Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg
Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg
Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg
Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg
Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;
*The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent.
*
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) ==
*The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections.
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus''
Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus''
Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex''
Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg|
Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
=== Species  with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen ===
Some parts may be brown.

*''Java atropos''
*''Cyphononyx obscurus''
*''Hemipepsis vindex''
*''Hemipepsis vespertilio''
*''Hemipepsis braunsi''
*''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
&lt;br&gt;
=== Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red ===
*''Cyphononyx optimus''
*''Paracyphononyx zonatus''
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg
Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg
Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg

&lt;/gallery&gt;
*With fuscous (darker) wing apex
*One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated)
*Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted)


&lt;br&gt;
== South African Ceropalinae ==
Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020]
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) 
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa)
**''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
**''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
**= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319
*''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
&lt;br&gt;

==Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).&lt;ref name=Madl2020&gt;Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84.
[https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;


Ceropalinae can be defined by:&lt;ref name=Brothers1993&gt;Brothers, D. J. &amp; Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. &amp; Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Waichert2015&gt; Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., &amp; Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa &amp; Schmid-Egger, 2025)&lt;ref name=CoL2025&gt; Kroupa, A. S., &amp; Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv &lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].&lt;br&gt;

=== Genus ''Ceropales'' ===
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia)
*''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia)
*''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone)
*''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia)
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal)
*''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo)
*''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal)
**''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
*''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea)
*''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel)
*''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania)
**''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
*''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia)
&lt;br&gt;
=== Genus ''Irenangelus'' ===
*''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar)
&lt;br&gt;

==Eumeninae==
Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:&lt;br&gt;
''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;

==Ants==
'''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)'''

Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23)
Amblyoponinae              7
Dolichoderinae           630
Dorylinae                 1 167
Formicinae            10 396       Camponotus   6 090; Lepisiota 1 046
Myrmicinae              8 484       Crematogaster  1 786;   Pheidole  1 468;   Messor  1 156 
Ponerinae                1 623
Proceratiinae                  3
Pseudomyrmecinae   296


Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' &lt;br&gt;

Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' &lt;br&gt;

Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' &lt;br&gt; 

Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' &lt;br&gt;

Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' &lt;br&gt;

Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera  &lt;br&gt;

Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera &lt;br&gt;


&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae 
Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae 
Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae 
Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae
Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae 
Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae  
Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae 
Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae 
AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae 
Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae 
Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae 
Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae 
Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== N-P interactions ==
Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770.
'''Abstract'''
Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective.

==Diptera==
===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies===
====Food detection====
*''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. 
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392
*It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
====Courtship====
*Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
*''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays.
**https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062
*Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata''
**https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x
====Mimics for defense====
*Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae.
**https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ 
*Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging.
**https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612
*Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders.
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families===
The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:&lt;br&gt;

* '''Carnoidea'''
** Acartophthalmidae         0
** Australimyzidae           0
** Braulidae (bee lice)         1
** Canacidae (beach flies)         3
** Carnidae (bird flies)         0
** Chloropidae (frit flies)         259
** Cryptochetidae              1
** Inbiomyiidae                0
** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Diopsoidea'''
** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies)    545
** Gobryidae                   0
** Megamerinidae               0
** Nothybidae                   0
** Psilidae (rust flies)         29
** Somatiidae                   0
** Syringogastridae            0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Ephydroidea'''
** Camillidae  0
** Campichoetidae   0
** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies)   15
** Diastatidae 0
** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312
** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Lauxanioidea'''
** Celyphidae (beetle flies)  0
** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies)  24
** Cremifaniidae  0
** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies)  710
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Nerioidea'''
** Cypselosomatidae  0
** Fergusoninidae  0
** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies)  245
** Neriidae  109
** Strongylophthalmyiidae  0
** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies)  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Opomyzoidea'''
** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161
** Anthomyzidae  3
** Asteiidae  4
** Aulacigastridae  2
** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2
** Marginidae  0
** Neminidae 0 
** Neurochaetidae 0
** Odiniidae  0
** Opomyzidae  4
** Periscelididae  1
** Teratomyzidae  0
** Xenasteiidae  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sciomyzoidea''' 
** Coelopidae (kelp flies)  51
** Conopidae (thick-headed flies)  192
** Dryomyzidae  1
** Helcomyzidae  0
** Helosciomyzidae  0
** Heterocheilidae  0
** Huttoninidae  0
** Natalimyzidae  0
** Phaeomyiidae  0
** Ropalomeridae  1
** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies)  67
** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies)  269
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sphaeroceroidea'''
** Chyromyidae (golden flies)  19
** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies)  151
** Nannodastiidae  0
** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies)  48
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Tephritoidea'''
** Ctenostylidae  1
** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47
** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies)  5
** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1
** Platystomatidae (signal flies)  683
** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies)  119
** Richardiidae  0
** Tachiniscidae  2
** Tephritidae (fruit flies)  1,759
** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165

== References ==</text>
      <sha1>jqqcsndq2x62ax7ozyb4yc8hxf688ol</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2842635</id>
      <parentid>2842634</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-26T07:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* African wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Crabronidae) */</comment>
      <origin>2842635</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="31667" sha1="361xupbrg67u2d6c7nnyo6haqhex26s" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Info--&gt;

= African wasps of the tribe Oxybelini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=
Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p359&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 359-370 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed the tribe worldwide. Antropov (1999-2007) and Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:55-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed African species.&lt;br&gt;

The submarginal cell in the forewing is fused with the discoidal cells; most species have metanotal squamae (paired, scale-like or plate-like projections of the metanotum) and a mucro (an extension of the propodeum).&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p359/&gt;
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
GL.96 Oxybelus uniglumis m.jpg|An ''Oxybelus uniglumis'' specimen from Finland showing the wing venation typical of the Oxybelini
Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|An ''Oxybelus'' wasp showing the mucro projecting above the wing 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Genus ''Belarnoldus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;  ==
This genus has a single species, described as ''Belomicrus crassus'' by [[w:George Arnold (entomologist)|Arnold]] in 1936; it differs from other Oxybelini in having a compressed scape with a longitudinal carina on the ventral (lower) side.&lt;ref name=Antropov2007/&gt; The body is black; parts of the clypeus and mandible, squamae and tarsi are brownish; and the apical edges of the first three metasomal tergites are dark brown.   

*''Belarnoldus crassus'' (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa; Springbok, Kamieskroon, Matjesfontein)

== Genus ''Belokohlus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ==

*''Belokohlus ferrieri'' (Kohl, 1924) (South Africa)

== Genus Belomicrinus Antropov, 2000 ==

Belomicrinus luteosquamatus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

Belomicrinus minutissimus (Arnold, 1936) (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicroides Kohl, 1899 ==

Belomicroides arenarius Arnold, 1960 (Zimbabwe)

Belomicroides clypeatus Antropov, 2002 (South Africa)

Belomicroides erythrogaster Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides marleyi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides maximiliani Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides pictus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides pictus chrysoptilus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides politus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides rift Antropov, 2002 (Kenya)

Belomicroides veronicae Antropov, 2002 (Ethiopia)

Belomicroides woji Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicrus Costa, 1867 ==

Belomicrus mirificus Kohl, 1905 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Brimocelus Arnold, 1927 ==

Brimocelus radiatus (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Brimocelus roosevelti Antropov, 2000 (South Africa)

Brimocelus schwarzi Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Gessus Antropov, 2001 ==

Gessus capensis Antropov, 2001 (South Africa)

== Genus Minimicroides Antropov, 2000 ==

Minimicroides perexiguus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Nototis Arnold, 1927 ==

Nototis bicornutus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Nototis falcidens Antropov, 2007 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelomorpha Brauns, 1897 ==

Oxybelomorpha braunsii (Kohl, 1923) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha funesta (Arnold, 1929) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha gessi Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha imitans Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha kohlii Brauns in Kohl, 1896 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha nitens Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha pseudosordida Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha pulawskii Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha rhodesiana (Arnold, 1927) (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelomorpha rubicunda Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha rufiventris (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha separata Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sgessae Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sordida (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha turneri (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha wojciechi Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelus Latreille, 1796 ==
Reviewed by Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold-Oxybelus1927&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:76-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; and Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976oxy&gt;https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/364/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;.

Oxybelus acutissimus Bischoff, 1912 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus acutissimus propinquus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus aethiopicus Cameron, 1906 (South Africa)

Oxybelus angustus de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus arnoldi Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus bechuanae Arnold, 1936 (Botswana)

Oxybelus bicornutus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia, South Africa)

Oxybelus braunsi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus congophilus Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus coniferus Arnold, 1951 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus cristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus curviscutis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus dissimilis Arnold, 1934 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus eburneoguttatus Arnold, 1952 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis nyassae Arnold, 1927 (Tanzania)

Oxybelus flaviventris Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus fraudulentus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus harraricus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus hessei Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus imperialis Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus lepturus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus limatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus lingula Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus matabele Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus metopias Kohl, 1894 (Mozambique)

Oxybelus nasutus Bischoff, 1913 (Namibia)

Oxybelus natalensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus neuvillei Magretti, 1908 (Kenya)

Oxybelus pallidus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia, Tanzania)

Oxybelus paucipunctatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus peringueyi de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus perornatus Arnold, 1945 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus pictus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus pilosus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus rubrocaudatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus ruficaudis Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

Oxybelus ruficaudis melanarius Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus solitarius Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus stevensoni Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus subcristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus taschenbergi Kohl, 1875 (South Africa)

Oxybelus willowmorensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus woosnami Arnold, 1927 (Botswana, South Africa)

Oxybelus zavattarii Guiglia, 1943 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Wojus Antropov, 1999 ==

Wojus inopinatus Antropov, 1999 (South Africa)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=

Diagnosis of the South African genera requires details that are often difficult to see in photographs.&lt;ref name=Pulawski2007&gt;Pulawski, W. J. (2007). The wasp genus Tachysphex Kohl, 1883, of Sahara, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Madagascar (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Crabronidae). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (Fourth Series) 58, Supplement 1:1-698. Available through:
http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2007_African_Tachysphex.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p252&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 252-286 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;
 

== Genus ''Gastrosericus'' ==
There are 25 Afrotropical species; four in South Africa.

== Genus ''Kohliella'' Brauns, 1910 &lt;ref&gt;http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35572001&lt;/ref&gt;==

There are three species of ''Kohliella''; two are Afrotropical.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt; 

''Kohliella alaris'' is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe; it hunts tree crickets.&lt;ref&gt;Gess, S.K. &amp; Gess, F.W. 2014. Wasps and bees in southern Africa. SANBI Biodiversity Series 24. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. p. 71-72. https://archive.org/details/waspsbeesinsouth24gess/page/70/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genus ''Parapiagetia'' ==


== Genus ''Tachytes'' ==
There are 79 Afrotropical species; 15 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Tachysphex '' ==
There are 128 Afrotropical species; 41 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Larropsis '' ==

''Larropsis (Ancistromma) obliqua'' (F. Smith); description in Arnold, 1923b:218 as ''Tachytes obliquus''
== Genus ''Tachytella '' ==
== Genus ''Prosopigastra'' ==
== Genus ''Holotachysphex '' ==
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= Southern African wasp species of Tribe Trypoxylini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]]) =

== Genus ''Pison'' Jurine, 1808 ==

Arnold ([http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327574 1924, 1-10]) has a key and descriptions.

*''Pison allonymum'' Schulz, 1906 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance 1.5 to 2.5 times the diameter of an ocellus;
**Fairly long, whitish or silvery pilosity on head and thorax, more dense on the temples than elsewhere.&lt;ref name=Arnold1924&gt;Arnold, G. (1924) The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part V. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 11:1-4 http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327575&lt;/ref&gt;

*''Pison atrum'' (Spinola, 1808:253) described by Cameron as ''Pison montanum'' (Kenya, South Africa, Zambia)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance not greater than the diameter of an ocellus;
**Pronotal collar longer than in ''allonymum''.

*''Pison transvaalense'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa to Tanzania and Uganda)
**Head and thorax dull; finely and closely punctured;
**Distance between the posterior ocelli and the eyes is equal to a third to a half of the diameter of the ocellus.


*''Pison auratum'' Shuckard, 1838 (an Australian species; see Pulawski, 2018:85 http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2018.pdf)

*''Pison denticeps'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; &quot;Transvaal&quot;. Two cubital cells; he only record seems to be the description)

*''Pison repentinum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison rufitarse'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison scruposum'' Arnold, 1955 (Zimbabwe)

== Genus ''Trypoxylon'' Latreille, 1796 ==

*''Trypoxylon abditum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon algoense'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon arnoldi'' Menke, 1976 (South Africa, Tanzania)

*''Trypoxylon braunsi'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon capense'' Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon cataractae'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon chirindense'' Arnold, 1936 (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon foveatum'' Cameron, 1904 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon inconstans'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon infimum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon kohli'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon letiferum'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon lissonotum'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon montivagum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon nodosum'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon punctatissimum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon stevensoni'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon stroudi'' Gribodo, 1884 (Ethiopia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo)

*''Trypoxylon testaceipes'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon triste'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

= Pompilidae of South Africa =
== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg
Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg
Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg
Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg
Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg
Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;
*The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent.
*
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) ==
*The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections.
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus''
Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus''
Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex''
Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg|
Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
=== Species  with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen ===
Some parts may be brown.

*''Java atropos''
*''Cyphononyx obscurus''
*''Hemipepsis vindex''
*''Hemipepsis vespertilio''
*''Hemipepsis braunsi''
*''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
&lt;br&gt;
=== Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red ===
*''Cyphononyx optimus''
*''Paracyphononyx zonatus''
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg
Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg
Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg

&lt;/gallery&gt;
*With fuscous (darker) wing apex
*One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated)
*Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted)


&lt;br&gt;
== South African Ceropalinae ==
Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020]
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) 
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa)
**''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
**''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
**= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319
*''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
&lt;br&gt;

==Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).&lt;ref name=Madl2020&gt;Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84.
[https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;


Ceropalinae can be defined by:&lt;ref name=Brothers1993&gt;Brothers, D. J. &amp; Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. &amp; Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Waichert2015&gt; Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., &amp; Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa &amp; Schmid-Egger, 2025)&lt;ref name=CoL2025&gt; Kroupa, A. S., &amp; Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv &lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].&lt;br&gt;

=== Genus ''Ceropales'' ===
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia)
*''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia)
*''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone)
*''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia)
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal)
*''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo)
*''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal)
**''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
*''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea)
*''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel)
*''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania)
**''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
*''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia)
&lt;br&gt;
=== Genus ''Irenangelus'' ===
*''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar)
&lt;br&gt;

==Eumeninae==
Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:&lt;br&gt;
''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;

==Ants==
'''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)'''

Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23)
Amblyoponinae              7
Dolichoderinae           630
Dorylinae                 1 167
Formicinae            10 396       Camponotus   6 090; Lepisiota 1 046
Myrmicinae              8 484       Crematogaster  1 786;   Pheidole  1 468;   Messor  1 156 
Ponerinae                1 623
Proceratiinae                  3
Pseudomyrmecinae   296


Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' &lt;br&gt;

Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' &lt;br&gt;

Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' &lt;br&gt; 

Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' &lt;br&gt;

Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' &lt;br&gt;

Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera  &lt;br&gt;

Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera &lt;br&gt;


&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae 
Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae 
Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae 
Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae
Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae 
Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae  
Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae 
Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae 
AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae 
Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae 
Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae 
Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae 
Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== N-P interactions ==
Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770.
'''Abstract'''
Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective.

==Diptera==
===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies===
====Food detection====
*''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. 
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392
*It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
====Courtship====
*Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
*''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays.
**https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062
*Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata''
**https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x
====Mimics for defense====
*Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae.
**https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ 
*Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging.
**https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612
*Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders.
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families===
The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:&lt;br&gt;

* '''Carnoidea'''
** Acartophthalmidae         0
** Australimyzidae           0
** Braulidae (bee lice)         1
** Canacidae (beach flies)         3
** Carnidae (bird flies)         0
** Chloropidae (frit flies)         259
** Cryptochetidae              1
** Inbiomyiidae                0
** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Diopsoidea'''
** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies)    545
** Gobryidae                   0
** Megamerinidae               0
** Nothybidae                   0
** Psilidae (rust flies)         29
** Somatiidae                   0
** Syringogastridae            0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Ephydroidea'''
** Camillidae  0
** Campichoetidae   0
** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies)   15
** Diastatidae 0
** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312
** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Lauxanioidea'''
** Celyphidae (beetle flies)  0
** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies)  24
** Cremifaniidae  0
** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies)  710
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Nerioidea'''
** Cypselosomatidae  0
** Fergusoninidae  0
** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies)  245
** Neriidae  109
** Strongylophthalmyiidae  0
** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies)  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Opomyzoidea'''
** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161
** Anthomyzidae  3
** Asteiidae  4
** Aulacigastridae  2
** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2
** Marginidae  0
** Neminidae 0 
** Neurochaetidae 0
** Odiniidae  0
** Opomyzidae  4
** Periscelididae  1
** Teratomyzidae  0
** Xenasteiidae  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sciomyzoidea''' 
** Coelopidae (kelp flies)  51
** Conopidae (thick-headed flies)  192
** Dryomyzidae  1
** Helcomyzidae  0
** Helosciomyzidae  0
** Heterocheilidae  0
** Huttoninidae  0
** Natalimyzidae  0
** Phaeomyiidae  0
** Ropalomeridae  1
** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies)  67
** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies)  269
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sphaeroceroidea'''
** Chyromyidae (golden flies)  19
** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies)  151
** Nannodastiidae  0
** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies)  48
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Tephritoidea'''
** Ctenostylidae  1
** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47
** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies)  5
** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1
** Platystomatidae (signal flies)  683
** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies)  119
** Richardiidae  0
** Tachiniscidae  2
** Tephritidae (fruit flies)  1,759
** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165

== References ==</text>
      <sha1>361xupbrg67u2d6c7nnyo6haqhex26s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2842636</id>
      <parentid>2842635</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina (Crabronidae) */</comment>
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      <text bytes="31665" sha1="tu0x4hxds2ipejvlpx9sy4oaqddu7it" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Info--&gt;

= African wasps of the tribe Oxybelini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=
Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p359&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 359-370 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed the tribe worldwide. Antropov (1999-2007) and Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:55-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; reviewed African species.&lt;br&gt;

The submarginal cell in the forewing is fused with the discoidal cells; most species have metanotal squamae (paired, scale-like or plate-like projections of the metanotum) and a mucro (an extension of the propodeum).&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p359/&gt;
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
GL.96 Oxybelus uniglumis m.jpg|An ''Oxybelus uniglumis'' specimen from Finland showing the wing venation typical of the Oxybelini
Oxybelus iN 250449990 2024 10 09 - 02.jpg|An ''Oxybelus'' wasp showing the mucro projecting above the wing 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Genus ''Belarnoldus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;  ==
This genus has a single species, described as ''Belomicrus crassus'' by [[w:George Arnold (entomologist)|Arnold]] in 1936; it differs from other Oxybelini in having a compressed scape with a longitudinal carina on the ventral (lower) side.&lt;ref name=Antropov2007/&gt; The body is black; parts of the clypeus and mandible, squamae and tarsi are brownish; and the apical edges of the first three metasomal tergites are dark brown.   

*''Belarnoldus crassus'' (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa; Springbok, Kamieskroon, Matjesfontein)

== Genus ''Belokohlus'' &lt;small&gt;Antropov, 2007&lt;ref name=Antropov2007&gt;Antropov, A. V. (2007). On the taxonomy of South African digger wasps of the tribe Oxybelini (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae). Entomological Review, 87(4), 413-430. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0013873807040045 [http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Antropov_2007b_Nototis_et_al_Eng.pdf PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ==

*''Belokohlus ferrieri'' (Kohl, 1924) (South Africa)

== Genus Belomicrinus Antropov, 2000 ==

Belomicrinus luteosquamatus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

Belomicrinus minutissimus (Arnold, 1936) (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicroides Kohl, 1899 ==

Belomicroides arenarius Arnold, 1960 (Zimbabwe)

Belomicroides clypeatus Antropov, 2002 (South Africa)

Belomicroides erythrogaster Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides marleyi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides maximiliani Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides pictus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Belomicroides pictus chrysoptilus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides politus Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

Belomicroides rift Antropov, 2002 (Kenya)

Belomicroides veronicae Antropov, 2002 (Ethiopia)

Belomicroides woji Antropov, 2002 (Namibia)

== Genus Belomicrus Costa, 1867 ==

Belomicrus mirificus Kohl, 1905 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Brimocelus Arnold, 1927 ==

Brimocelus radiatus (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Brimocelus roosevelti Antropov, 2000 (South Africa)

Brimocelus schwarzi Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Gessus Antropov, 2001 ==

Gessus capensis Antropov, 2001 (South Africa)

== Genus Minimicroides Antropov, 2000 ==

Minimicroides perexiguus Antropov, 2000 (Namibia)

== Genus Nototis Arnold, 1927 ==

Nototis bicornutus Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Nototis falcidens Antropov, 2007 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelomorpha Brauns, 1897 ==

Oxybelomorpha braunsii (Kohl, 1923) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha funesta (Arnold, 1929) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha gessi Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha imitans Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha kohlii Brauns in Kohl, 1896 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha nitens Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha pseudosordida Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha pulawskii Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha rhodesiana (Arnold, 1927) (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelomorpha rubicunda Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

Oxybelomorpha rufiventris (Arnold, 1936) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha separata Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sgessae Antropov, 2005 (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha sordida (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha turneri (Arnold, 1927) (South Africa)

Oxybelomorpha wojciechi Antropov, 2005 (Namibia)

== Genus Oxybelus Latreille, 1796 ==
Reviewed by Arnold (1927)&lt;ref name=Arnold-Oxybelus1927&gt;Arnold, 1927. The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part VIII. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 12:76-115. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60351914.&lt;/ref&gt; and Bohart and Menke (1976)&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976oxy&gt;https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/364/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;.

Oxybelus acutissimus Bischoff, 1912 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus acutissimus propinquus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus aethiopicus Cameron, 1906 (South Africa)

Oxybelus angustus de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus arnoldi Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus bechuanae Arnold, 1936 (Botswana)

Oxybelus bicornutus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia, South Africa)

Oxybelus braunsi Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus congophilus Benoit, 1951 (Democratic Republic of Congo)

Oxybelus coniferus Arnold, 1951 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus cristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus curviscutis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus dissimilis Arnold, 1934 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus eburneoguttatus Arnold, 1952 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus flavicornis nyassae Arnold, 1927 (Tanzania)

Oxybelus flaviventris Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus fraudulentus Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus harraricus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus hessei Arnold, 1929 (Namibia)

Oxybelus imperialis Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus lepturus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus limatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus lingula Gerstaecker, 1867 (South Africa)

Oxybelus matabele Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus metopias Kohl, 1894 (Mozambique)

Oxybelus nasutus Bischoff, 1913 (Namibia)

Oxybelus natalensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus neuvillei Magretti, 1908 (Kenya)

Oxybelus pallidus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia, Tanzania)

Oxybelus paucipunctatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus peringueyi de Saussure, 1892 (South Africa)

Oxybelus perornatus Arnold, 1945 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus pictus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus pilosus Arnold, 1927 (Ethiopia)

Oxybelus rubrocaudatus Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus ruficaudis Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

Oxybelus ruficaudis melanarius Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus solitarius Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus stevensoni Arnold, 1927 (Zimbabwe)

Oxybelus subcristatus de Saussure, 1892 (Madagascar)

Oxybelus taschenbergi Kohl, 1875 (South Africa)

Oxybelus willowmorensis Arnold, 1927 (South Africa)

Oxybelus woosnami Arnold, 1927 (Botswana, South Africa)

Oxybelus zavattarii Guiglia, 1943 (Ethiopia)

== Genus Wojus Antropov, 1999 ==

Wojus inopinatus Antropov, 1999 (South Africa)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= South African wasp species of Subtribe Gastrosericina ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]])=

Diagnosis of the South African genera requires details that are often difficult to see in photographs.&lt;ref name=Pulawski2007&gt;Pulawski, W. J. (2007). The wasp genus Tachysphex Kohl, 1883, of Sahara, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Madagascar (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Crabronidae). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (Fourth Series) 58, Supplement 1:1-698. Available through:
http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2007_African_Tachysphex.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=BohartMenke1976p252&gt;Bohart, R.M. &amp; Menke, A. S. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the World: a Generic Revision. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 252-286 https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/n359/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genus ''Gastrosericus'' ==
There are 25 Afrotropical species; four in South Africa.

== Genus ''Kohliella'' Brauns, 1910 &lt;ref&gt;http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35572001&lt;/ref&gt;==

There are three species of ''Kohliella''; two are Afrotropical.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Crabronidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt; 

''Kohliella alaris'' is found in South Africa and Zimbabwe; it hunts tree crickets.&lt;ref&gt;Gess, S.K. &amp; Gess, F.W. 2014. Wasps and bees in southern Africa. SANBI Biodiversity Series 24. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. p. 71-72. https://archive.org/details/waspsbeesinsouth24gess/page/70/mode/2up&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genus ''Parapiagetia'' ==


== Genus ''Tachytes'' ==
There are 79 Afrotropical species; 15 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Tachysphex '' ==
There are 128 Afrotropical species; 41 in South Africa.

== Genus ''Larropsis '' ==

''Larropsis (Ancistromma) obliqua'' (F. Smith); description in Arnold, 1923b:218 as ''Tachytes obliquus''
== Genus ''Tachytella '' ==
== Genus ''Prosopigastra'' ==
== Genus ''Holotachysphex '' ==
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

= Southern African wasp species of Tribe Trypoxylini ([[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]]) =

== Genus ''Pison'' Jurine, 1808 ==

Arnold ([http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327574 1924, 1-10]) has a key and descriptions.

*''Pison allonymum'' Schulz, 1906 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance 1.5 to 2.5 times the diameter of an ocellus;
**Fairly long, whitish or silvery pilosity on head and thorax, more dense on the temples than elsewhere.&lt;ref name=Arnold1924&gt;Arnold, G. (1924) The Sphegidae of South Africa. Part V. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 11:1-4 http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/60327575&lt;/ref&gt;

*''Pison atrum'' (Spinola, 1808:253) described by Cameron as ''Pison montanum'' (Kenya, South Africa, Zambia)
**Head and thorax strongly punctured, the thorax more or less shining between the punctures; 
**Posterior ocelli separated from the eyes by a distance not greater than the diameter of an ocellus;
**Pronotal collar longer than in ''allonymum''.

*''Pison transvaalense'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; probably most of southern Africa to Tanzania and Uganda)
**Head and thorax dull; finely and closely punctured;
**Distance between the posterior ocelli and the eyes is equal to a third to a half of the diameter of the ocellus.


*''Pison auratum'' Shuckard, 1838 (an Australian species; see Pulawski, 2018:85 http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/Hymenoptera/sphecidae/copies/Pulawski_2018.pdf)

*''Pison denticeps'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa; &quot;Transvaal&quot;. Two cubital cells; he only record seems to be the description)

*''Pison repentinum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison rufitarse'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Pison scruposum'' Arnold, 1955 (Zimbabwe)

== Genus ''Trypoxylon'' Latreille, 1796 ==

*''Trypoxylon abditum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon algoense'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon arnoldi'' Menke, 1976 (South Africa, Tanzania)

*''Trypoxylon braunsi'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon capense'' Cameron, 1905 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon cataractae'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon chirindense'' Arnold, 1936 (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon foveatum'' Cameron, 1904 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon inconstans'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon infimum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon kohli'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon letiferum'' Arnold, 1946 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon lissonotum'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon montivagum'' Arnold, 1940 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon nodosum'' Arnold, 1944 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon punctatissimum'' Arnold, 1924 (South Africa)

*''Trypoxylon stevensoni'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon stroudi'' Gribodo, 1884 (Ethiopia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo)

*''Trypoxylon testaceipes'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

*''Trypoxylon triste'' Arnold, 1924 (Zimbabwe)

= Pompilidae of South Africa =
== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly orange to yellow with fuscous (darker or blackish) wing-tips ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Inaturalist 258649905 b.jpg
Hemipepsis hilaris - inaturalist 10850475.jpg
Cyphononyx decipiens inat 26259647 b.jpg
Tachypompilus ignitus inaturalist 311015843 02.jpg
Pompilidae 2021 12 12 inaturalist 313386858 04.jpg
Pompilidae 2020 04 13 inaturalist 43563902 06.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;
*The extent of the fuscous colour can be limited to the apex of the wing beyond the cells, or extend into the cells to a varying extent.
*
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings fuscous (black or very dark) ==
*The wings often have green-blue-violet reflections.
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae 2019 05 01 2835.jpg|Female ''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
Pompilidae inaturalist 124148802 01.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx optimus''
Pompilidae 2021 12 18 iNat 316501919 a.jpg|Female ''Cyphononyx obscurus''
Pompilidae 2025 03 14 iNat 266538336 a.jpg|Male ''Hemipepsis vindex''
Pompilidae_2019_05_28_0256.jpg|
Spider-hunting Wasp (Hemipepsis) female (12640106905).jpg|''Hemipepsis'' sp.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
=== Species  with black antennae, legs, head, thorax and abdomen ===
Some parts may be brown.

*''Java atropos''
*''Cyphononyx obscurus''
*''Hemipepsis vindex''
*''Hemipepsis vespertilio''
*''Hemipepsis braunsi''
*''Batozonellus fuliginosus''
&lt;br&gt;
=== Species with black antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, but legs (or parts of some legs) yellow to red ===
*''Cyphononyx optimus''
*''Paracyphononyx zonatus''
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

== South African Pompilidae with fore-wings mainly hyaline to fuscous-hyaline ==
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pompilidae inaturalist 123577538.jpg
Pompilidae inaturalist 46961473.jpg
Pompilidae iN 144781033 03.jpg

&lt;/gallery&gt;
*With fuscous (darker) wing apex
*One or two fuscous bands (faciated or bifaciated)
*Hyaline parts can be clouded (whiteish clouding) or coloured (yellow-tinted)


&lt;br&gt;
== South African Ceropalinae ==
Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region: [https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 Madl, 2020]
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881; key in Móczár 1986a: 321 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}} (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa?, Uganda, Zimbabwe?)
*''Ceropales {{font color||#0f0|(Priesnerius)}} kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe) 
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837; key in Móczár 1986b: 125 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904; key in Móczár 1986a: 320 (Lesotho, South Africa)
**''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
**''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
**= Hemiceropales scobinifera (Arnold, 1937): Móczár 1986a: 319
*''Ceropales (Bifidoceropales) sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910; key in Móczár 1990: 61 (South Africa, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 - {{font color||yellow|''helvetica'' group}}; key in Móczár 1989: 12 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
&lt;br&gt;

==Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region (Madl, 2020).&lt;ref name=Madl2020&gt;Madl, M. (2020). Annotated catalogue of the subfamily Ceropalinae (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) of the Afrotropical region. Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Entomologen 72: 73-84.
[https://www.entomologie.at/permalink/articles/87-zeitschrift-der-arbeitsgemeinschaft-oesterreichischer-entomologen-72-2020-0073-0084 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;


Ceropalinae can be defined by:&lt;ref name=Brothers1993&gt;Brothers, D. J. &amp; Finnamore. (1993). Superfamily Vespoidea. In Goulet, H. &amp; Huber, J. T. (Eds.). (1993). Hymenoptera of the world: an identification guide to families. 161-278. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259227143&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Waichert2015&gt; Waichert, C., Rodriguez, J., Wasbauer, M. S., Von Dohlen, C. D., &amp; Pitts, J. P. (2015). Molecular phylogeny and systematics of spider wasps (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae): redefining subfamily boundaries and the origin of the family. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 175(2), 271-287. {{doi|10.1111/zoj.12272}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282015793 PDF]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Genera and species of Afrotropical Ceropalinae ==

This list is based on that of [https://www.waspweb.org/Pompiloidea/Pompilidae/Ceropalinae/index.htm '''waspweb'''] with changes following the Catalogue of Life (Kroupa &amp; Schmid-Egger, 2025)&lt;ref name=CoL2025&gt; Kroupa, A. S., &amp; Schmid-Egger, C. (2025). Hymenoptera Information System, Pompilidae of the World (version 2019-09). In O. Bánki, Y. Roskov, M. Döring, G. Ower, D. R. Hernández Robles, C. A. Plata Corredor, T. Stjernegaard Jeppesen, A. Örn, T. Pape, D. Hobern, S. Garnett, H. Little, R. E. DeWalt, J. Miller, T. Orrell, R. Aalbu, J. Abbott, C. Aedo, E. Aescht, et al., Catalogue of Life (Version 2025-07-10). Catalogue of Life Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.48580/dg9ld-4kv &lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:George_Arnold_(entomologist)|papers by Arnold (1932-1962)]].&lt;br&gt;

=== Genus ''Ceropales'' ===
*''Ceropales africana'' Móczar, 1989. (Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Togo, Yemen, Zambia)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales arnoldi'' Móczar, 1988 (Namibia)
*''Ceropales atra'' Móczar, 1991 (Botswana)
*''Ceropales cribrata cribrata'' A. Costa, 1881 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales cribrata maculipes'' Móczar, 1986 (Zambia)
*''Ceropales carinitifrons'' Wahis, 1986 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales angolaensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Angola)
*''Ceropales dayi'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales ferrugo'' Móczar, 1989 (Kenya)
*''Ceropales gambiae'' Móczar, 1989 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone)
*''Ceropales gessi'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa)
*''Ceropales grahamstowni'' Móczar, 1988 (South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales juncoi'' Giner Mari, 1945 (Chad, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan, Western Sahara)
*''Ceropales karooensis'' Arnold, 1937 (Namibia, South Africa)
*''Ceropales kongoensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales kriechbaumeri'' Magretti, 1884 (Burkina Faso, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales latifasciatus'' Arnold, 1937 (Ethiopia)
*''Ceropales lawrencei'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales levipleuris'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales maliensis'' Móczar, 1989 (Mali, Senegal)
*''Ceropales maroccana'' Beaumont, 1947 (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Zimbabwe. Also Palaearctic region)
*''Ceropales multipicta'' Arnold, 1937 (Botswana, Namibia)
*''Ceropales picta'' Shuckard, 1837 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, South Africa, Uganda)
*''Ceropales punctulatus punctulatus'' Cameron, 1904 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales punctulatus bulawayoensis'' Bischoff, 1913 (Angola, Burkina Faso, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales punctulatus cereris'' Arnold, 1937 (Lesotho, South Africa)
*''Ceropales ruficollis'' Cameron, 1910 (Kenya, Tanzania)
*''Ceropales saegeri'' Móczar, 1988 (Democratic Reublic of Congo)
*''Ceropales senegalensis'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Senegal)
**''Ceropales senegalensis mbouri'' Móczar, 1988 (Senegal)
*''Ceropales scobiniferus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa)
*''Ceropales seyrigi'' Wahis, 1987 (Madagascar)
*''Ceropales spinolai'' Móczar, 1988 (Guinea)
*''Ceropales subhelvetica'' Móczar, 1988 (Burkina Faso, Senegal. Also Palaearctic: Israel)
*''Ceropales sulciscutis'' Cameron, 1910 (South Africa, Tanzania)
**''Ceropales sulciscutis raymondi'' Móczar, 1990 (Democratic Republic of Congo)
*''Ceropales variolosus'' Arnold, 1937 (Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo, Uganda)
*''Ceropales waltoni'' Arnold, 1959 (Botswana, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe)
*''Ceropales yemeni'' Móczar, 1988 (Yemen. Also Palaearctic: Israel, Saudi Arabia)
&lt;br&gt;
=== Genus ''Irenangelus'' ===
*''Irenangelus madescassus'' Wahis, 1988 (Madagascar)
&lt;br&gt;

==Eumeninae==
Photos of ''Antodynerus'' on GBIF:&lt;br&gt;
''alboniger'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689053 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''hova'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320165802 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''kelneri'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/3762658306 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''lugubris'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1248689125 (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)&lt;br&gt; 
''seyrigi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1322648015 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''sheffieldi'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1318932924 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;
''silaos'': https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/1320574593 (CC0 1.0)&lt;br&gt;

==Ants==
'''Subfamilies of Formicidae (WaspWeb)'''

Number of iNaturalist records for subfamilies of Formicidae in Africa (2023-05-23)
Amblyoponinae              7
Dolichoderinae           630
Dorylinae                 1 167
Formicinae            10 396       Camponotus   6 090; Lepisiota 1 046
Myrmicinae              8 484       Crematogaster  1 786;   Pheidole  1 468;   Messor  1 156 
Ponerinae                1 623
Proceratiinae                  3
Pseudomyrmecinae   296


Aenictinae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictus'' &lt;br&gt;

Aenictogitoninae One Afrotropical genus ''Aenictogiton'' &lt;br&gt;

Amblyoponinae Five Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Apomyrminae One Afrotropical genus ''Apomyrma'' &lt;br&gt; 

Cerapachyinae Five Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dolichoderinae Eight Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Dorylinae One Afrotropical genus ''Dorylus'' &lt;br&gt;

Formicinae 20 Afrotropical genera&lt;br&gt;

Leptanillinae One Afrotropical genus ''Leptanilla'' &lt;br&gt;

Myrmicinae 37 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Ponerinae 18 Afrotropical genera &lt;br&gt;

Proceratiinae Three Afrotropical genera  &lt;br&gt;

Pseudomyrmecinae One Afrotropical genus Tetraponera &lt;br&gt;


&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Aenictogiton sp.jpg|''Aenictogiton'' sp., Aenictogitoninae 
Apomyrma stygia casent0101444 profile 1.jpg|''Apomyrma stygia'', Apomyrminae 
Cerapachys coxalis casent0173076 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys coxalis'', Cerapachyinae 
Cerapachys centurio castype12081-02 profile 1.jpg|''Cerapachys centurio'', Cerapachyinae
Tapinoma subtile casent0132840 dorsal 1.jpg|''Tapinoma subtile'', Dolichoderinae 
Dorylus helvolus, a, Seringveld.jpg|''Dorylus helvolus'', Dorylinae  
Polyrhachis schistacea00.jpg|''Polyrhachis schistacea'', Formicinae 
Anoplolepis custodiens, met prooi, a, Krugersdorp.jpg|''Anoplolepis custodiens'', Formicinae 
AFRICAN THIEF ANT SIX.jpg|''Carebara vidua'', Myrmicinae 
Millipede Hunter Ant (Plectroctena mandibularis) (11904420373).jpg|''Plectroctena mandibularis'', Ponerinae 
Discothyrea hewitti sam-hym-c000061a profile 1.jpg|''Discothyrea hewitti'', Proceratiinae 
Probolomyrmex filiformis casent0102141 profile 1.jpg|''Probolomyrmex filiformis'', Proceratiinae 
Slender Ant (Tetraponera natalensis) (30538051244).jpg|''Tetraponera natalensis'', Pseudomyrmecinae
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== N-P interactions ==
Dai, Z., Liu, G., Chen, H., Chen, C., Wang, J., Ai, S., Wei, D., Li, D., Ma, B., Tang, C., Brookes, P.C. and Xu, J., 2020. Long-term nutrient inputs shift soil microbial functional profiles of phosphorus cycling in diverse agroecosystems. The ISME journal, 14(3), pp.757-770.
'''Abstract'''
Microorganisms play an important role in soil phosphorus (P) cycling and regulation of P availability in agroecosystems. However, the responses of the functional and ecological traits of P-transformation microorganisms to long-term nutrient inputs are largely unknown. This study used metagenomics to investigate changes in the relative abundance of microbial P-transformation genes at four long-term experimental sites that received various inputs of N and P nutrients (up to 39 years). Long-term P input increased microbial P immobilization by decreasing the relative abundance of the P-starvation response gene (phoR) and increasing that of the low-affinity inorganic phosphate transporter gene (pit). This contrasts with previous findings that low-P conditions facilitate P immobilization in culturable microorganisms in short-term studies. In comparison, long-term nitrogen (N) input significantly decreased soil pH, and consequently decreased the relative abundances of total microbial P-solubilizing genes and the abundances of Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria containing genes coding for alkaline phosphatase, and weakened the connection of relevant key genes. This challenges the concept that microbial P-solubilization capacity is mainly regulated by N:P stoichiometry. It is concluded that long-term N inputs decreased microbial P-solubilizing and mineralizing capacity while P inputs favored microbial immobilization via altering the microbial functional profiles, providing a novel insight into the regulation of P cycling in sustainable agroecosystems from a microbial perspective.

==Diptera==
===Wing and leg-waving behavior in flies===
====Food detection====
*''Rhagio lineola'' and ''R. tringarius'' feed on pollen and/or honeydew, which they locate by sweeping their front legs across the surface of leaves. They have a few fine hairs on their front legs, probably for this purpose. Other Rhagionidae do not have these hairs. 
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359760392
*It is also possible that some flies sample the air with the chemical sensors on their legs or feet.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
====Courtship====
*Some Taeniapterinae are thought to wave their white-tipped front legs attract females.
**https://bugguide.net/node/view/217136/bgpage
*''Physiphora clausa'' appear to use leg-waving in courtship displays.
**https://www.flickr.com/photos/jean_hort/4663220062
*Waving of forelegs is included in the complex courtship behavior of ''Physiphora demandata''
**https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1979.tb00298.x
====Mimics for defense====
*Stilt-legged flies ''Rainieria antennaepes'' mimic ichneumonid wasps. They extend their fore-legs in front of their head, so they look like wasp antennae.
**https://thingsbiological.wordpress.com/2012/05/21/stilt-legged-flies-rainieria-antennaepes/ 
*Some hover-fly species mimic wasps by mock stinging, leg waving, or wing wagging.
**https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674612
*Wing-waving to mimic salticid spiders.
**https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27373081 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6083895&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

===Number of iNat records in Acalyptrate fly families===
The [[w:acalyptratae|acalyptrate fly clade]] includes the following superfamilies and families:&lt;br&gt;

* '''Carnoidea'''
** Acartophthalmidae         0
** Australimyzidae           0
** Braulidae (bee lice)         1
** Canacidae (beach flies)         3
** Carnidae (bird flies)         0
** Chloropidae (frit flies)         259
** Cryptochetidae              1
** Inbiomyiidae                0
** Milichiidae (freeloader flies) 158
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Diopsoidea'''
** Diopsidae (stalk-eyed flies)    545
** Gobryidae                   0
** Megamerinidae               0
** Nothybidae                   0
** Psilidae (rust flies)         29
** Somatiidae                   0
** Syringogastridae            0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Ephydroidea'''
** Camillidae  0
** Campichoetidae   0
** Curtonotidae (quasimodo flies)   15
** Diastatidae 0
** Drosophilidae (vinegar and fruit flies) 312
** Ephydridae (shore flies) 117
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Lauxanioidea'''
** Celyphidae (beetle flies)  0
** Chamaemyiidae (aphid flies)  24
** Cremifaniidae  0
** Lauxaniidae (lauxaniid flies)  710
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Nerioidea'''
** Cypselosomatidae  0
** Fergusoninidae  0
** Micropezidae (stilt-legged flies)  245
** Neriidae  109
** Strongylophthalmyiidae  0
** Tanypezidae (stretched-foot flies)  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Opomyzoidea'''
** Agromyzidae (leaf-miner flies) 161
** Anthomyzidae  3
** Asteiidae  4
** Aulacigastridae  2
** Clusiidae (druid flies) 2
** Marginidae  0
** Neminidae 0 
** Neurochaetidae 0
** Odiniidae  0
** Opomyzidae  4
** Periscelididae  1
** Teratomyzidae  0
** Xenasteiidae  0
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sciomyzoidea''' 
** Coelopidae (kelp flies)  51
** Conopidae (thick-headed flies)  192
** Dryomyzidae  1
** Helcomyzidae  0
** Helosciomyzidae  0
** Heterocheilidae  0
** Huttoninidae  0
** Natalimyzidae  0
** Phaeomyiidae  0
** Ropalomeridae  1
** Sciomyzidae (marsh flies)  67
** Sepsidae (black scavenger flies)  269
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Sphaeroceroidea'''
** Chyromyidae (golden flies)  19
** Heleomyzidae (heleomyzid flies)  151
** Nannodastiidae  0
** Sphaeroceridae (lesser dung flies)  48
&lt;br&gt;
* '''Tephritoidea'''
** Ctenostylidae  1
** Lonchaeidae (lance flies) 47
** Pallopteridae (flutter-wing flies)  5
** Piophilidae (cheese skipper flies) 1
** Platystomatidae (signal flies)  683
** Pyrgotidae (scarab-pursuing flies)  119
** Richardiidae  0
** Tachiniscidae  2
** Tephritidae (fruit flies)  1,759
** Ulidiidae (picture-winged flies) 165

== References ==</text>
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        <username>Alexis Jazz</username>
        <id>791434</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="1280" sha1="tpancwu337t76izf6xwj008tqkgnvhn" xml:space="preserve">{{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}}
The following data is cached, and was last updated 2026-10-25T06:14:39Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache.
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  <page>
    <title>User:Dc.samizdat/Real Euclidean four-dimensional space</title>
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      <comment>/* Polycentric spherical relativity */</comment>
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      <text bytes="112548" sha1="3w7xfe6prbp06scz1fqv7414nkw3t36" xml:space="preserve">{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt; of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Summary ==
We observe that:
* Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions.
* Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]].
* The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions.
* Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space.
* Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; in Euclidean 4-space.
* Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space.
* General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space.
* Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space.

== A theory of the Euclidean cosmos ==
The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. 

All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space.

A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. 

Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane.

The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. 

The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter.

The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. 

For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. 

The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. 

A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects.

Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. 

Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core.

The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be &quot;heaped up&quot; into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. 

Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball).

The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect.

Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, a rotation and a translation.  

Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is &lt;math&gt;c\prime = 2c&lt;/math&gt;, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. 

This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space.

== Symmetries ==

It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel &amp; Goodman-Strauss|2008}}

As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. 

[[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}}
&lt;blockquote&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt; denote a rotation, &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{R}&lt;/math&gt; a reflection, &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt; a translation, and let &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt; denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{RT}&lt;/math&gt; is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QR}&lt;/math&gt; is a rotary-reflection, &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; is a screw-displacement, and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt; is a double rotation (in four dimensions).&lt;br&gt;
Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:&lt;br&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;(2^q + r \le n)&lt;/math&gt;, the number of dimensions.&lt;br&gt;
Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:&lt;br&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;(2^q + r + 1 \le n)&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;br&gt;
For &lt;math&gt;(n = 4)&lt;/math&gt; in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^2&lt;/math&gt;, or a screw-displacement &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; [where the rotation component &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt; is a simple rotation, but the &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; is chiral like a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt;]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QRT}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt; or a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt;, because we can view any &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; as a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt; in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt;. By the same principle, we can view any &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt; as an isoclinic (equi-angled) &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt; by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt;) for ''one'' of the two rotations (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt;). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt;) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt;).

As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group &lt;math&gt;SO(4)&lt;/math&gt; [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic &lt;math&gt;SO(4)&lt;/math&gt; rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit &lt;math&gt;SO(4)&lt;/math&gt; symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt;) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]].

== Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space ==

&lt;blockquote&gt;Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.&lt;ref name=Einstein1923&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}}

This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn|
...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four.

In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems.

So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the &quot;speed of light&quot; &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;.

Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers.
...cite Kappraff &amp; Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}}

Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could &quot;catch up&quot; with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; cannot possibly be the speed of light!

We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt; to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be &lt;math&gt;c\prime = 2c&lt;/math&gt;, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;.

== An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections ==
Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move.

Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a  object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality.

Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton &amp; Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}&lt;/ref&gt; But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:&lt;br&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;(2^q + r + t \le 4)&lt;/math&gt;. Every displacement is either a double rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^2&lt;/math&gt;, or a screw-displacement &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; [where the rotation component &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt; is a simple rotation, but the &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; is chiral like a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt;]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QRT}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt;), reflection (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{R}&lt;/math&gt;) and translation (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt;) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^2&lt;/math&gt;) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate.

A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt; rather than a rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt;. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. 

Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt;. A translating double rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^2&lt;/math&gt;, like a translating simple rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt;, is simply a screw translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt;. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt;) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; or double rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}^2&lt;/math&gt; lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi r&lt;/math&gt;, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle.

In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, but it is the common reference frame of all observers.

== Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;==
Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, which may be termed a double translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}^2&lt;/math&gt;, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt;.

Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt;, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt;, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt; or simple translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt; is a double reflection &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{R^2}&lt;/math&gt;, so a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2}&lt;/math&gt; is an &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{R^4}&lt;/math&gt;, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{R^4}&lt;/math&gt;. A translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T = R^2}&lt;/math&gt; is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q = R^2}&lt;/math&gt; is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT = R^4}&lt;/math&gt; which is both at once. A double translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}&lt;/math&gt; is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T^2}&lt;/math&gt; all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt; in a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt;. A double translation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}&lt;/math&gt; is the opposite of a double rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}&lt;/math&gt;, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Q}&lt;/math&gt; in a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt;. 

The product of the two translations in a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T^2}&lt;/math&gt; is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt; over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T^2}&lt;/math&gt; cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{QT}&lt;/math&gt; does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn|
...lensing of double translations &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}&lt;/math&gt; in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}}

== Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space ==

{{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}}

Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. 

It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.)

None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical.  The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. 

The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery.

== General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space ==

The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]].

The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames).

Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. 

Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same.

Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. 

Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;.

An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; on their respective screw translations &lt;math&gt;QT&lt;/math&gt;,  which are distinct.

In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; through 4-space remains the constant &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; of a translation &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;: a screw translation &lt;math&gt;QT&lt;/math&gt;.

A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution.

The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation &lt;math&gt;Q^2&lt;/math&gt; distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. 

In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct &lt;math&gt;QT&lt;/math&gt; trajectory. Each rotational displacement &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;. Every atom translates at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second.

Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator.

The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; is the distinct simple rotation &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; and the distinct rotation's conservation law.

A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;.

...

== Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space ==

...

== Dimensional relativity ==
The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy.

Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]].

By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-dimensional Euclidean space is an &lt;math&gt;(n-1)&lt;/math&gt;-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-spaces of increasing &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-dimensional space than others.

== Polycentric spherical relativity ==

An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything.

This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. 

The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space:
&lt;blockquote&gt;The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; &quot;The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.&quot; [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Revolutions ==

The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition.

In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time.

As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space.

Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space.

When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. 

To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. 

These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since.

== Origins of the theory ==

Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.&lt;ref name=Einstein1923/&gt; He invited us to imagine &quot;A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions&quot;, but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that &quot;The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice.&quot;

Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.''

The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. 

Anco and Maghadam found that &lt;math&gt;SO(4)&lt;/math&gt; breaks to &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt; (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to &lt;math&gt;H^3&lt;/math&gt; (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt; is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn|
...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}}

The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; &quot;Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions.&quot;}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

== Boundaries ==

&lt;blockquote&gt;Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the 
planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions?

We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell.

Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force.

&lt;blockquote&gt;The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three ....

In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it.

We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed &quot;Dimensional Analogy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}&lt;blockquote&gt;
:We shall not cease from exploration
:And the end of all our exploring
:Will be to arrive where we started
:And know the place for the first time.
:Through the unknown, remembered gate
:When the last of earth left to discover
:Is that which was the beginning;
:At the source of the longest river
:The voice of the hidden waterfall
:And the children in the apple-tree
:Not known, because not looked for
:But heard, half-heard, in the stillness
:Between two waves of the sea.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. 

I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
::::::BEECH

:Where my imaginary line
:Bends square in woods, an iron spine
:And pile of real rocks have been founded.
:And off this corner in the wild,
:Where these are driven in and piled,
:One tree, by being deeply wounded,
:Has been impressed as Witness Tree
:And made commit to memory
:My proof of being not unbounded.
:Thus truth's established and borne out,
:Though circumstanced with dark and doubt—
:Though by a world of doubt surrounded.

:::::::—''The Moodie Forester''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== ... ==
{{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}}

{{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}}

{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}}

{{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as &quot;the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex&quot;.{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its &quot;radius&quot; equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}}

{{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example:
{{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0)
{{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}})
{{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}})
{{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)&lt;br&gt;
is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}}

{{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60°  rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic  rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the &quot;left&quot; is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}}

{{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}}

{{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; &quot;In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also
known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two
intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane
cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus
axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting
tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the
(1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles].&quot;}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}}

{{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}}

{{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}}

{{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}}

{{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}

{{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}}

{{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

{{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}}

{{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}}

{{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; bend, or as a straight line with one 60&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}}

{{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; &quot;In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)&quot;}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}}

{{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}}

{{Efn|Departing from any vertex V&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, the first vertex reached V&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;. P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is inclined to P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is 120 degrees beyond V&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; that is Clifford parallel to P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.{{Efn|P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; lies in both intersecting planes P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, as V&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; lies in both P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;. But P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is 120 degrees beyond V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; that is Clifford parallel to P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; to V&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}}

{{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio &amp; Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;.}}

==Notes==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}}

==Citations==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}}
* {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}}
* {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}}

=== [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] ===
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}}
{{Refend}}</text>
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    <title>Generations</title>
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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Generation
!Year Range
|-
|Arthurian
|1433-1460 (28)
|-
|Humanist
|1461-1482 (22)
|-
|Reformation
|1483-1511 (29)
|-
|Reprisal
|1512-1540 (29)
|-
|Elizabethan
|1541-1565 (25)
|-
|Parliamentary
|1566-1587 (22)
|-
|Puritan
|1588-1617 (30)
|-
|Cavalier
|1618-1647 (30)
|-
|Glorious
|1648-1673 (26)
|-
|Enlightenment
|1674-1700 (27)
|-
|Awakening
|1701-1723 (23)
|-
|Liberty
|1724-1741 (18)
|-
|Republican
|1742-1766 (25)
|-
|Compromise
|1767-1791 (25)
|-
|Transcendental
|1792-1821 (30)
|-
|Gilded
|1822-1842 (21)
|-
|Progressive
|1843-1859 (17)
|-
|Missionary
|1860-1882 (23)
|-
|Lost
|1883-1900 (18)
|-
|Interbellum
|1901-1927 (27)
|-
|Silent
|1928-1945 (18)
|-
|Baby Boom
|1946-1964 (19)
|-
|Baby Bust
|1965-1979 (15)
|-
|Millennial
|1980-1994 (15)
|-
|Homeland
|1995-2009 (15)
|-
|Generation Alpha
|2010-2024 (15)
|-
|Generation Beta
|2025-2039 (15) 
|}</text>
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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Generation
!Year Range
|-
|Arthurian
|1433-1460 (28)
|-
|Humanist
|1461-1482 (22)
|-
|Reformation
|1483-1511 (29)
|-
|Reprisal
|1512-1540 (29)
|-
|Elizabethan
|1541-1565 (25)
|-
|Parliamentary
|1566-1587 (22)
|-
|Puritan
|1588-1617 (30)
|-
|Cavalier
|1618-1647 (30)
|-
|Glorious
|1648-1673 (26)
|-
|Enlightenment
|1674-1700 (27)
|-
|Awakening
|1701-1723 (23)
|-
|Liberty
|1724-1741 (18)
|-
|Republican
|1742-1766 (25)
|-
|Compromise
|1767-1791 (25)
|-
|Transcendental
|1792-1821 (30)
|-
|Gilded
|1822-1842 (21)
|-
|Progressive
|1843-1859 (17)
|-
|Missionary
|1860-1882 (23)
|-
|Lost
|1883-1900 (18)
|-
|Interbellum
|1901-1927 (27)
|-
|Silent
|1928-1945 (18)
|-
|Baby Boom
|1946-1964 (19)
|-
|Baby Bust
|1965-1979 (15)
|-
|Millennial
|1980-1994 (15)
|-
|Homeland
|1995-2009 (15)
|-
|Generation Alpha
|2010-2024 (15)
|-
|Generation Beta
|2025-2039 (15) 
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[[Category:History]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Remotely proctored exam during the exam period''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 40%
* 2-hour, online, remotely proctored exam during the Week 14-15 University exam period
* Multiple-choice and open-ended questions
* ~50% about motivation and 5~0% about emotion
* Assesses knowledge and learning from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|lectures]], [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]], and readings
* Closed-book: Notes and genAI are not permitted
* For more detail, see the [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/quizzes/71013 exam guidelines]

==Marking and feedback==
* Marks and feedback will be provided when official university grades are released (see [https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc/key-dates/ Key dates]).

==Deferred exams==
* Apply for a deferred exam using the University's [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home/my-studies/exams/about-uc-exams.html deferred exam application] with appropriate documentary evidence.
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late).
* If you don't sit the exam (or the deferred exam) it is unlikely that you will pass the unit.

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion
| The exam tests understanding of key theories and research in the field of motivation and emotion as emphasised in the textbook, lectures, and tutorials.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Be professional — up-to-date knowledge and skills
| Develop a broad understanding of current psychological theory and research about motivation and emotion.
|}
&lt;!--
==Instructions==
* '''Attempts''': Unlimited attempts
* '''Availability''': Quizzes will be available on {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} throughout semester
* '''Content''': Quizzes consist of 10 randomly selected multiple-choice questions from a test bank designed to assess knowledge of content covered in the corresponding lectures, tutorials, and readings
* '''Time limit''': 15 minutes
* '''Bug bounty''' (bonus marks): Email the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] if you identify a quiz error or possible improvement. Accepted revisions earn bonus quiz marks.
--&gt;
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Exam/Practice quizzes|Practice quizzes]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
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    <title>Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs</title>
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      <text bytes="23408" sha1="eecyiw07azyqftoxvgeb5jnxfwji8eb" xml:space="preserve">[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD, GBR, USA, SGP).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1348–1807, Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, and Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

:''I am entitled to my [[Wiktionary:cockamamie|cockamamie]] ideas, and you are entitled to yours.''&lt;ref&gt;Humor is important but must be offered in a way that does not offend others. If others are offended, they may be less interested in dialogue. The term &quot;cockamamie&quot; is used here, hoping that this style of [[w:Self-deprecation|self-deprecation]] might be more inviting for dialogue.&lt;/ref&gt; 

:This book invites you to improve your understanding of the role of the media in society and help you be more effective in talking with others and building consensus for action on the issues that most concern you. You are also invited to help improve this chapter and book. 

==Introduction== 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) suggest that the stability of poverty and the [[w:Malthusianism|Malthusian trap]] in hierarchical societies ''prior'' to the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] was enforced by &quot;societies of orders&quot; consisting of those who (1) fought, (2) prayed, and (3) worked. Those who prayed convinced those who worked to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced so those who prayed and fought could live in leisure and opulence. This seems to describe the construction of the pyramids in Egypt and the cathedrals, castles and manor homes that dot Europe today.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the reign of [[w:James VI and I|King James of the King James bible]] pamphlets and newspapers began to compete with the church for helping peasants understand their role in society. That contributed to the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651) during which James' son, [[w: Charles I of England|Charles I]], was decapitated for abuse of power. The new government allowed enough commoners to become entrepreneurs that it increased the rate of economic growth visible in Figure 1. 

The number of independent media organizations per million population continued to grow, especially in the US where they were subsidized by the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792, [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John|until the mid nineteenth century]], when high-speed rotary presses substantially reduced the per copy cost of printing while increasing the cost of starting a newspaper.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995); John and Silberstein-Loeb (2015).&lt;/ref&gt; That contributed to the expansion of voting rights, in the US officially to all adults by 1920. During the [[w:Great Depression|Great Depression]] with over 20 percent of the US workforce unemployed, conservative arguments that blamed the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers. That helped US President [[w:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin Roosevelt]] get the political support needed for his [[w:New Deal|New Deal]] program and [[The Media, the Great Depression, and our future|wage and price controls that enabled unprecedented economic growth]] during [[w:World War II|World War II]] by dramatically limiting price gouging that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth during previous major wars in US history. 

However, the consolidation of ownership of the major media since World War II limited the increases in inequality and then reversed them starting around the time that [[w:Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan]] became president of the US in 1981.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Johnson (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; During the [[w:Great Recession|Great Recession]] (2007-2009) Fox featured &quot;experts&quot; who insisted that Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal made the Great Depression ''worse'', not better. That editorial distortion helped prevent the US Congress from protecting the victims of [[w:Stated income loan|liar loans]]. But the money had to be injected back into the economy, so the US Congress funded bonuses of over a million dollars each to over 5,000 finance industry leaders, some of whom should have been in prison, according to Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, ch. 3), who shared the 2024 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:James A. Robinson|James A. Robinson]]. A major contributor to the Great Recession has reportedly been the success of the finance industry in getting sufficient control of the major media that they have been able to dramatically reduce financial regulation codified in the [[w:Glass–Steagall legislation|Glass–Steagall legislation]] of 1933 and block other reforms like a [[w:Tobin tax|Tobin tax]] to reduce market swings from extremely short term trading, an idea for which [[w:James Tobin|James Tobin]] won the [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|1981 Nobel memorial prize in economics]]. 

You, dear reader, are invited to offer contrary evidence or questions regarding the evidence presented here. This chapter identifies the leading countries in [[w:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita for each year]] in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]], which collates [[w:Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita and population estimates for years 1 [[w:Common Era|CE]] to the present from all credible sources the project team has found. The MaddisonData package for R makes these data available as an R data object with companion functions to facilitate computing the leaders for each year with optional exclusions to facilitate identifying the technology leaders and with a function ggplotPath to make it relatively easy to plot and annotate the image as desired.&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025).&lt;/ref&gt; The analysis then narrows the focus to apparent technology leaders since 1349, when the data identify Holland as the leader. This analysis identifies 11 different countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year. However, only 5 lead for more than 10 years: Holland (NLD), England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom (GBR), Australia (AUS), the United States (USA), and Singapore (SGP).&lt;ref&gt;The population of [[w:Singapore|Singapore]] is roughly 6 million. If you think that's too small to be included in this analysis, you can either ignore it or, better, repeat this analysis without it. A tutorial on how to do that using free and open-source software is available in [[Most productive countries since 1349#Appendix. Companion R Markdown vignette|an R Markdown vignette]] supplied as an appendix to the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Most productive countries since 1349]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Australia led for only 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891 as the US was overtaking the UK as the technology leader. A plot of the leaders is then made without Australia, because its inclusion would seem to add more complexity than clarity to the message. That display is a [[w:Semi-log|semilog]] plot, because it makes a constant percentage increase look like a straight line. The resulting plot of GDP per capita suggests the Industrial Revolution began in England around 1649 when King Charles I was beheaded. 

== World leaders in GDP per capita ==

Table 1 lists all the countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year in MaddisonData. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ ''Table 1. all the countries with the highest GDP per capita for at least one year in the MaddisonData.'' 
|-
! rowspan=2 | country !! rowspan=2 | ISO !! colspan=2 | year !! rowspan=2 | n years !! rowspan=2 | percent of years 
|-
! begin !! end  
|-
| [[w:Ancient Rome|Italy (ancient Rome)]] 
| ITA || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1 || 1501 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 3 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 0.2% 
|- 
| [[w:Iraq|Iraq]] || IRQ || style=&quot;text-align:right | 730 || 1000 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 271 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:China|China]] || CHN  || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1090 || 1150 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 61 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:England|England]] / [[w:Great Britain|Great Britain]] / [[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] || GBR || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1252 || 1898 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 91 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 14% 
|-
| [[w:France|France]] || FRA || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1276 || 1374 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 19 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 19% 
|- 
| [[w:Spain|Spain]] || ESP || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1278 || 1348 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 50 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 70% 
|- 
| [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] || SWE || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1304 || 1509 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 13 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 6%
|- 
| [[w:Holland|Holland]] / [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] || NLD || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1349 || 1807 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 447 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 97%
|- 
| [[w:Belgium|Belgium]] || BEL || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1500 || 1500 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:Australia|Australia]] || AUS || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1853 || 1891 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 17 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 44%
|- 
| [[w:New Zealand|New Zealand]] || NZL || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1873 || 1874 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|-
| [[w:United States|United States]] || USA || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1882 || 1990 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 58 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 53%
|- 
| [[w:Switzerland|Switzerland]] || CHE || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1931 || 1934 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 4 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:Qatar|Qatar]] || QAT || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1950 || 2022 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 45 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 62%
|- 
| [[w:Kuwait|Kuwait]] || KWT || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1953 || 1957 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100% 
|-
|[[w:United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]] || ARE || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1965 || 1984 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 25%
|- 
| [[w:Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] || LUX || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1991 || 1995 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:Norway|Norway]] || NOR || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1996 || 2002 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 7 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100% 
|} 

For simplicity, we focus on the data since 1349, when Holland had the highest GDP per capita, omitting Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), United Arab Emirates (ARE), and Norway (NOR), whose wealth may be more due to petroleum than to broad technology leadership. We also delete Luxenbourg (LUX), whose population is under a million and therefore may be too small to use for general conclusions about technology leadership. Table 2 is similar to Table 1 with these adjustments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ ''Table 2. Highest GDP per capita among broad-based economies since 1349.'' 
|-
! rowspan=2 | country !! rowspan=2 | ISO !! colspan=2 | year !! rowspan=2 | n years !! rowspan=2 | percent of years 
|-
! begin !! end  
|- 
| [[w:Holland|Holland]] / [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] || NLD || 1349 || 1807 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 447 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 97%
|- 
| [[w:France|France]] || FRA || 1357 || 1374 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 7 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 39% 
|- 
| [[w:Italy|Italy]] || ITA || 1451 || 1501 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 4%
|- 
| [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] || SWE || 1468 || 1509 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 5%
|- 
| [[w:Belgium|Belgium]] || BEL || 1500 || 1500 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 1 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:England|England]] / [[w:Great Britain|Great Britain]] / [[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] || GBR || 1808 || 1898 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 67 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 74% 
|- 
| [[w:Australia|Australia]] || AUS || 1853 || 1891 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 17 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 44%
|- 
| [[w:New Zealand|New Zealand]] || NZL || 1873 || 1874 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 2 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|- 
| [[w:United States|United States]] || USA || 1882 || 2005 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 107 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 86% 
|- 
| [[w:Switzerland|Switzerland]] || CHE || 1931 || 2009 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 9 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 11%
|- 
| [[w:Singapore|Singapore]] || SGP || 2010 || 2022 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 13 || style=&quot;text-align:right | 100%
|}

Singapore (SGP) has replaced Norway as the current leader, according to the Maddison project data. The Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;accessed 2025-01-01&lt;/ref&gt; notes that data from the US [[w:Central Intelligence Agency|Central Intelligence Agency]] report GDP per capita numbers for [[w:Monaco| Monaco]] (MCO) and [[w:Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]] (LIE) higher than for Singapore and Norway. However, they are tiny countries with populations roughly 40,000 each and are not included in MaddisonData. 

[[w:Holland|Holland]] (NLD) was the leader for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, according to MaddisonData. Then between 1807 and 1808, GDP per capita for NLD fell by 32 percent -- almost a third. That change can be attributed at least in part to a change in the definition of &quot;NLD&quot;: Up to 1807, NLD represented Holland, per van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012). Beginning in 1808, the data are for the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]], per Smits et al. (2000), of which Holland is only part. Those years were also during the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]], and the Netherlands were part of France for part of that period. To understand this drop better, we would need to consult experts on that history.   

After that change, Holland / the Netherlands was replaced as the leader in GDP per capita by England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom (GBR), which led for 74 percent of the 91 years between 1808 and 1898. Then the US led for 84 percent of the years between 1882 and 1990 with Australia (AUS), New Zealand (NZL) and Switzerland (CHE) leading for the remaining 16 percent of those years. Luxembourg (LUX) led between 1991 and 2008, then Switzerland (CHE) led for 2009, then Singapore (SGP) between 2010 and 2022. 

The next section discusses a plot of the data for NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP. Others countries are omitted, because their leadership was so short, according to these data, that including them might add more complexity than information and make it harder to understand the big picture.

== Plot broad-based leaders == 

Figure 1 is a [[w:Semi-log|semilog]] plot of GDP per capita for NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP between 1349 and 2022. A semilog plot like this makes a constant percentage increase appear as a straight line. Annotations document some of the potentially most important events during this period: 
* The orange line represents Holland through 1807 and the Netherlands starting in 1808. 
* The English Civil War (1642-1652), during which King Charles I was decapitated (1649). 
* The War of 1912 (1812-1815). 
* The American Civil War (1861-1865). 
* [[w:World War I|WW1]] (1914-1918). 
* The presidency of Herbert Hoover (1929-1933). 
* The presidency of Franklin Roosevelt (1933-1945). 
* [[w:World War II|WW2]] (1939-1945). 
* The presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989). 
* The first presidency of Donald Trump (2017-2021). 
* The presidency of Joe Biden (2021-2025). 

The orange NLD line includes a drop of 32 percent between 1807 and 1808 as the data changed from representing only Holland to representing the Netherlands, as mentioned above. 

A key feature of a semilog plot is that a constant percentage increase appears as a straight line with the slope being proportional to the rate of growth. A fairly obvious feature of Figure 1 is that GDP per capita started increasing for England very  close to 1649, which King Charles I lost his head. England combined with Scotland to become Great Britain by the [[w:Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union of 1707]] during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Ann]], which was accompanied by economic turbulence visible in Figure 1. After she died, the economy began growing again but at a slower rate. Great Britain merged with Ireland by the [[w:Acts of Union 1800|Acts of Union of 1800]] to become the United Kingdom (UK) during the reign of George III. The creation of the UK was quickly followed by the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (1803-1815), which included the [[w:War of 1812|War of 1812]], which is marked on this plot. Those wars were followed by a brief decline in the UK GDP per capita, but it quickly started growing again at a faster rate. Both World Wars had negative impacts on the UK economy, visible in Figure 1. 

GDP per capita for the US started well below that of the UK, to the extent that the Maddison data are accurate, but grew faster and overtook the UK between 1882 and 1898, according to Table 2 above. The most spectacular features in Figure 1 are the unprecedented decline of the US economy during the administration of Herbert Hoover followed an even more unprecedented increase during the administration of FDR. 

The rate of growth in GDP per capita in the US is visibly slowing before Singapore takes the lead at the beginning of the Great Recession. [[w:Thomas Piketty|Thomas Piketty]], the world's leading expert on inequality, has attributed that slowing of the US economy to the increase in inequality since Reagan became US president in 1981, documented in Figures 6 and 7 of the next chapter of this book on, &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot;. That chapter includes a section on the &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future#Role of the media|Role of the media]]&quot;, which cites research suggesting that both the increase in inequality and the slowing of the rate of economic growth can be attributed to the increased concentration of ownership of the major media including for-profit social media, which make money increasing political polarization and violence.

== Caveat ==

Lindert and Williamson insist that Maddison's data are deficient, at least regarding the relative position of the 13 colonies that became the US: {{quote| 

American world leadership in income per person has waxed and waned for centuries.
Before the twentieth century, the period in which Americans most clearly led Britain and all of western Europe in purchasing power per capita was during colonial times—that is, when North Americans were still British. They were already ahead by the late seventeenth century. America lost that lead in the Revolutionary War and the Articles of Confederation years, gained it back by 1860, lost most of it again in the Civil War decade, gained it back once more by 1900, and briefly lost it again in the Great Depression of the 1930s. ''Angus Maddison’s claim that American income per capita did not catch up to that of Britain until the start of the twentieth century seems to be off the mark by at least two centuries.''

Over the whole span of over 360 years since the mid-seventeenth century, America’s income advantage over Britain has not increased and may have decreased slightly. The only historical moment in which the United States soared far ahead of the rest of the world in average income came at the end of World War II. Since then, western Europe and Japan have been growing faster than the United States in terms of incomes per person. (emphasis added.)&lt;ref&gt;Lindert and Williamson (2016, pp. 8-9).&lt;/ref&gt;}}

This challenge to the numbers in the current analysis is vital for understanding the impact of armed conflict on the economy but may be irrelevant to the main point of this book, that media play a major role in helping humans understand what they should do to advance their interests.

== Exercise ==

Share with others your thoughts on the issues raised in this discussion and summarize those discussions on the &quot;Discuss&quot; page associated with this chapter. Focus especially on how you managed your emotions and your relationships with the humans with whom you spoke as well as the strengths and weaknesses in the content of this chapter, challenges that should be addressed, and suggestions for improvement. 

== See also ==

* [[Most productive countries since 1349]]
* [[The Media, the Great Depression, and our future]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!--Daron Acemoğlu and Simon Johnson (2023) ''Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity'' (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Susan B. Carter, S. S. Gartner, M. R. Haineset (2006) ''Historical Statistics of the United States: Earliest Time to the Present'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137660377}}
* &lt;!--Spencer Graves (2025-11-25) &quot;MaddisonData: Maddison Project Data&quot; software available from the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) and GitHub--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137660514}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) ''Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse'' (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John; Jonathan Silberstein-Loeb, eds. (2015) ''Making News: The Political Economy of Journalism in Britain and America from the Glorious Revolution to the Internet'' (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468166}}
* &lt;!--John J. McCusker (2006) &quot;Colonial Statistics&quot;, Carter et al. (2006, V-671)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669937}}
* &lt;!--Reece Peck (2016) &quot;Usurping the usable past: How Fox News remembered the Great Depression during the Great Recession&quot;, ''Journalism'', 18(6)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q135527962}}
* &lt;!--W. Scheidel and S. J. Friesen (2009) &quot;The size of the economy and the distribution of income in the Roman Empire&quot;, ''Journal of Roman Studies'', 99, pp. 61–91--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55878109}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--R. Sutch (2006). National Income and Product. Carter et al. (2006, III-23-25)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670038}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 

[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Political science]]
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    <title>Patriarch Ages Curious Numerical Facts Response</title>
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      <contributor>
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 | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google &quot;Gemini, your personal AI assistant&quot;]{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}
This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified.

== Summary of Main Arguments ==
The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include:

* '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or &quot;perfect&quot; numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality.
* '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions.
* '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood.
* '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific &quot;years of the world&quot; (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar.

= ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) =

Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101).

This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features &quot;101&quot; as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle.
 
In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a &quot;perfect&quot; Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows:

*:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
\frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &amp;= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &amp;= 210\,\,\text{šūši}  \\ 
&amp;= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ 
&amp;= 12,600 \, \text{years}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60).

==== Prototype 1: Initial &quot;Mesopotamian&quot; Allocation ====

----

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
The initial &quot;PT1&quot; framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''):

* '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49).
* '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''.
* '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920).
&lt;/div&gt;

----

==== Prototype 2: Refined &quot;Jubilee&quot; Allocation ====

----

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;&quot;&gt;
Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the &quot;Remainder&quot; to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the &quot;PT2&quot; figures as follows:

* '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees).
* '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees).
* '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949).
&lt;/div&gt;

----

'''Table Legend:'''
* &lt;span style=&quot;width:100%; color:#b71c1c;&quot;&gt;'''Red Cells'''&lt;/span&gt; indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death)

|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | Patriarch
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;&quot; | PROTOTYPE 1&lt;br/&gt;(PT1)
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;&quot; | PROTOTYPE 2&lt;br/&gt;(PT2)

|-
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|Group 1}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Seth
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|82 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(4920)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|45 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2700)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 15 &lt;small&gt;(900)&lt;/small&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;4949&lt;/div&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;2727&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 912

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enosh
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 15 &lt;small&gt;(900)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 905

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Kenan
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 15 &lt;small&gt;(900)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 910

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Mahalalel
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|37 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2220)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 15 &lt;small&gt;(900)&lt;/small&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;2222&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 895

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jared
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 16 &lt;small&gt;(960)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 962

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enoch
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 6 &lt;small&gt;(360)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 365

|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|Group 3}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot;  | Methuselah
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|46 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2760)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|32 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1920)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 16 &lt;small&gt;(960)&lt;/small&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;2702&lt;/div&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;1919&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 969

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Noah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 16 &lt;small&gt;(960)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 950

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Lamech
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 14 &lt;small&gt;(840)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 14 &lt;small&gt;(840)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 783
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 783

|-
| rowspan=&quot;18&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|Group 2}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Adam
| rowspan=&quot;18&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|82 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(4920)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|40 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2400)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 16 &lt;small&gt;(960)&lt;/small&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;18&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;4949&lt;/div&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;2401&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 930

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Shem
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 10 &lt;small&gt;(600)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 600

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Arpachshad
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 7 &lt;small&gt;(420)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 438

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Cainan (II)
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | —
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | —

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Shelah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 7 &lt;small&gt;(420)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 433

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Eber
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|25 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1500)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 8 &lt;small&gt;(480)&lt;/small&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;1525&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 464

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Peleg
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 4 &lt;small&gt;(240)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 239

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Reu
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 4 &lt;small&gt;(240)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 239

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Serug
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 3 &lt;small&gt;(180)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 230

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Nahor
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 3 &lt;small&gt;(180)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 148

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Terah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 3 &lt;small&gt;(180)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 205

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Abraham
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;{{nowrap|17 šūši}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1020)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 3 &lt;small&gt;(180)&lt;/small&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);&quot;&gt;1023&lt;/div&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 175

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Isaac
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 3 &lt;small&gt;(180)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 180

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jacob
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 3 &lt;small&gt;(180)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 147

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Levi
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 2 &lt;small&gt;(120)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 137

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Kohath
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 2 &lt;small&gt;(120)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 133

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Amram
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 2 &lt;small&gt;(120)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 131

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Moses
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 2 &lt;small&gt;(120)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | 120

|- style=&quot;background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black;&quot; | LIFESPAN&lt;br/&gt;DURATION&lt;br/&gt;SUM
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; | 210 šūši&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(12,600 years)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans==
[[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]]

Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE).

The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations.

* '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)'''
** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]]
** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah

* '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)'''
** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]]
** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel

* '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)'''
** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]]
** '''Prototype 1''': Shem

* '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)'''
** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]
** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah

The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list.

==The Grouping of Adam==
The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word &quot;Adapa&quot; is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]].

In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|&quot;Uruk List of Kings and Sages&quot;]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the &quot;sages&quot; eventually transition into human scholars.

A tentative translation reads:

*During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]].
*During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]].
*During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage.
*During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage.
*During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage.
*During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage.
*During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage.
*After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . .
*During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar.
. . .

This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives.

==== Mesopotamian Similarities ====
*[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions.
*[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos.
*[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven.

==== Conclusion ====
The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical &quot;surprise&quot; of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history.

==The Universal Flood==
In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative.

It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with &quot;all the craftsmen.&quot; 

Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark.

Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological &quot;corrections&quot; were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year)
|-
! rowspan = &quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | Patriarch
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan = &quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;&quot; | PT2
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;&quot; | SHORT CHRONOLOGY
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;&quot; | LONG CHRONOLOGY

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Samaritan &lt;br/&gt; (SP)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Masoretic &lt;br/&gt; (MT)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Septuagint &lt;br/&gt; (LXX)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Eusebius &lt;br/&gt; (Armenian)

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jared
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 962 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(460)&lt;br/&gt;(1422)&lt;/small&gt;
| 847 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(460)&lt;br/&gt;(1307)&lt;/small&gt;
| 962 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(460)&lt;br/&gt;(1422)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 962 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(960)&lt;br/&gt;(1922)&lt;/small&gt;

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Methuselah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 969 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(587)&lt;br/&gt;(1556)&lt;/small&gt;
| 720 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(587)&lt;br/&gt;(1307)&lt;/small&gt;
| 969 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(687)&lt;br/&gt;(1656)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 969 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1287)&lt;br/&gt;(2256)&lt;/small&gt;

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Lamech
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 783 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(654)&lt;br/&gt;(1437)&lt;/small&gt;
| 653 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(654)&lt;br/&gt;(1307)&lt;/small&gt;
| 777 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(874)&lt;br/&gt;(1651)&lt;/small&gt;
| 753 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(1454)&lt;br/&gt;(2207)&lt;/small&gt;
| 723 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(1454)&lt;br/&gt;(2177)&lt;/small&gt;

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Noah
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 950 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(707)&lt;br/&gt;(1657)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 950 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(1056)&lt;br/&gt;(2006)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 950 &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;(1642)&lt;br/&gt;(2592)&lt;/small&gt;

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | The Flood
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;(1307)&lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;(1656)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;small&gt;(2242)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

=== Samaritan Adjustments ===

As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. 

While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge.

=== Masoretic Adjustments ===

The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). 

Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged.

These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;&quot;
|+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son)

|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Patriarch
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;&quot; | SHORT CHRONOLOGY
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;&quot; | LONG CHRONOLOGY

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Samaritan &lt;br/&gt; (SP)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Masoretic &lt;br/&gt; (MT)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Septuagint &lt;br/&gt; (LXX)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Eusebius &lt;br/&gt; (Armenian)

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Adam
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 130
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 230

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Seth
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 105
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 205

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enosh
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 90
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 190

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Kenan
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 70
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 170

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Mahalalel
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 65
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 165

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jared
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 62
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 162

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enoch
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 65
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 165

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Methuselah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 67
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 187
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 167 / 187
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Lamech
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 53
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 182
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 188

|}

=== Septuagint Adjustments ===
In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX):

&lt;blockquote&gt;“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. 

However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth.

{{RoundBoxTop}}
====The &quot;Whoops Theory&quot;: A Digression====
Paul D.’s &quot;Whoops Theory&quot; suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to &quot;fix&quot; the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': 

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development.

==== Demetrius the Chronographer ====
Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''.

In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his &quot;Whoops Theory&quot; by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline:

* '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness.
* '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as &quot;a real mess&quot;).
* '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus.
* '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown.
* '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age.

The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the &quot;LONG CHRONOLOGY&quot; begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood.

The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop}}
'''Table Legend:'''
* &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b71c1c;&quot;&gt;'''Red Cells'''&lt;/span&gt; indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;&quot;
|+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son)

|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Patriarch
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;&quot; | LONG CHRONOLOGY

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Demetrius &lt;br/&gt; (204 BC)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Africanus &lt;br/&gt; (221 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Theophilus &lt;br/&gt; (192 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Septuagint &lt;br/&gt; (LXX)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Eusebius &lt;br/&gt; (325 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Josephus &lt;br/&gt; (94 AD)

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Adam
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 230

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Seth
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 205

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enosh
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 190

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Kenan
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 170

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Mahalalel
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 165

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jared
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 162

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enoch
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 165

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Methuselah
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 187
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 167
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | 167 / 187

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Lamech
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 188
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 182 / 188

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Noah
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 602
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 600
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | Varied

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Shem

|- style=&quot;background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black;&quot; | TOTAL
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2264
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2262
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2242
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Varied
|}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Flood Adjustment Summary ===

In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. 

* In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity.

* The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. 

* The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old.

== Additional Textual Evidence ==
Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables.

(The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.)

=== Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans)
|-
! rowspan = &quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | Patriarch
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan = &quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;&quot; | PT2
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;&quot; | SHORT CHRONOLOGY
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;&quot; | LONG CHRONOLOGY

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Masoretic &lt;br/&gt; (MT)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Samaritan &lt;br/&gt; (SP)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Septuagint &lt;br/&gt; (LXX)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Eusebius &lt;br/&gt; (Armenian)

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Adam
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} &lt;br/&gt;= 930
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} &lt;br/&gt;= 930

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Seth
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} &lt;br/&gt;= 912
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} &lt;br/&gt;= 912

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enosh
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|90 + 815}}  &lt;br/&gt;= 905
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} &lt;br/&gt;= 905

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Kenan
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|70 + 840}}  &lt;br/&gt;= 910
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} &lt;br/&gt;= 910

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Mahalalel
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|65 + 830}}  &lt;br/&gt;= 895
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} &lt;br/&gt;= 895

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jared
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} &lt;br/&gt;= 962
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} &lt;br/&gt;= 962
| {{nowrap|62 + 785}} &lt;br/&gt;= 847
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} &lt;br/&gt;= 962

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enoch
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} &lt;br/&gt;= 365
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} &lt;br/&gt;= 365

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Methuselah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} &lt;br/&gt;= 969
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} &lt;br/&gt;= 969
| {{nowrap|67 + 653}} &lt;br/&gt;= 720
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} &lt;br/&gt;= 969

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Lamech
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} &lt;br/&gt;= 783
| {{nowrap|182 + 595}} &lt;br/&gt;= 777
| {{nowrap|53 + 600}} &lt;br/&gt;= 653
| {{nowrap|188 + 565}} &lt;br/&gt;= 753
| {{nowrap|188 + 535}} &lt;br/&gt;= 723

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Noah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} &lt;br/&gt;= 950
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} &lt;br/&gt;= 950
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} &lt;br/&gt;= 950
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} &lt;br/&gt;= 950

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Shem
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;&quot; | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} &lt;br/&gt;= 600

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Arpachshad
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|? + ?}} &lt;br/&gt;= 438
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} &lt;br/&gt;= 438
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} &lt;br/&gt;= 438
| {{nowrap|135 + 400}} &lt;br/&gt;= 535
| {{nowrap|135 + 403}} &lt;br/&gt;= 538

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Cainan (II)
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | —
| 460
| —

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Shelah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|? + ?}} &lt;br/&gt;= 433
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} &lt;br/&gt;= 433
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} &lt;br/&gt;= 433
| {{nowrap|130 + 330}} &lt;br/&gt;= 460
| {{nowrap|130 + 406}} &lt;br/&gt;= 536

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Eber
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|? + ?}} &lt;br/&gt;= 464
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} &lt;br/&gt;= 464
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} &lt;br/&gt;= 404
| {{nowrap|134 + 433}} &lt;br/&gt;= 567

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Peleg
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|? + ?}} &lt;br/&gt;= 239
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} &lt;br/&gt;= 239
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} &lt;br/&gt;= 239
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} &lt;br/&gt;= 339

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Reu
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|? + ?}} &lt;br/&gt;= 239
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} &lt;br/&gt;= 239
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} &lt;br/&gt;= 239
| {{nowrap|132 + 207}} &lt;br/&gt;= 339
| {{nowrap|135 + 207}} &lt;br/&gt;= 342

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Serug
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|? + ?}} &lt;br/&gt;= 230
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} &lt;br/&gt;= 230
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} &lt;br/&gt;= 230
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} &lt;br/&gt;= 330

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Nahor
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|? + ?}} &lt;br/&gt;= 148
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} &lt;br/&gt;= 148
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} &lt;br/&gt;= 148
| {{nowrap|179 + 125}} &lt;br/&gt;= 304
| {{nowrap|79 + 119}} &lt;br/&gt;= 198

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Terah
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} &lt;br/&gt;= 205
| {{nowrap|70 + 75}} &lt;br/&gt;= 145
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} &lt;br/&gt;= 205

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Abraham
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} &lt;br/&gt;= 175

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Isaac
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} &lt;br/&gt;= 180

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jacob..Moses
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;&quot; | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} &lt;br/&gt;= 668
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} &lt;br/&gt;= 674
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} &lt;br/&gt;= 673
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} &lt;br/&gt;= 669

|- style=&quot;background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;&quot;
! style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black;&quot; | LIFESPAN&lt;br/&gt;DURATION&lt;br/&gt;SUM
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 12,600
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 11,991
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 13,551
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 13,200
|}

=== Samaritan Adjustment Details ===
As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the &quot;Group 1&quot; and &quot;Group 2&quot; patriarchs.

Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments:
* '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each).
* '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years.

This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing.

=== Masoretic Adjustment Details ===

In the 2017 article, &quot;[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs],&quot; Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late &quot;tweak&quot; in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ====
The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the &quot;harder reading is stronger&quot;) suggests that scribes tend to simplify or &quot;smooth&quot; texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life.

In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges:

* '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born.
* '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs.
* '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies.

This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a &quot;compressed chronology&quot; (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate &quot;balancing&quot; of total chronological years.

=== Armenian Eusebius Adjustments ===
Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system.

Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs:
* '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years.
* '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years.
* '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years.
* '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year.

=== Lifespan Adjustments by Group ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;&quot;

|+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum)
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Patriarch Groups
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;&quot; | PT2
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;&quot; | SHORT CHRONOLOGY
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;&quot; | LONG CHRONOLOGY

|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Masoretic&lt;br/&gt;(MT)
! style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Samaritan&lt;br/&gt;(SP)
! style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Septuagint&lt;br/&gt;(LXX)
! style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Eusebius&lt;br/&gt;(325 AD)

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Group 1: Seth to Enoch&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(6 Patriarchs)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;&quot; | 4949
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 4834&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(4949 - 115)&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;&quot; | 4949

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(The Remainder)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 2702
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 2696&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2702 - 6)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 2323&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2702 - 379)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 2672&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2702 - 30)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 2642&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2702 - 60)&lt;/small&gt;

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Group 2: Adam &amp; Shem to Moses&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(The &quot;Second Half&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;&quot; | 4949
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 4955&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(4949 + 6)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 4834&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(4949 - 115)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 5930&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(4949 + 981)&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 5609&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(4949 + 660)&lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;&quot;
! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 12,600
| 11,991
| 13,551
| 13,200
|}

* '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the &quot;Remainder&quot; to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block.
* '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost.
* '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence.
* '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units).

The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs.

The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''.

= It All Started With Grain =

[[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]]

The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops.

The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the &quot;firstfruits of your harvest&quot; (referring to barley) before the Lord:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]]

These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the &quot;better things&quot; and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.

This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye &lt;small&gt;(likely emmer wheat or spelt)&lt;/small&gt; were not smitten: for they were not grown up.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. 

The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest).

=== The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees ===

The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of &quot;weeks&quot;:

* '''Week of Years:''' 7&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; = 7 years
* '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 49 years
* '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = 343 years
* '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; = 2,401 years

The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land.

[[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]]

The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested &quot;Jubilee of Jubilees&quot; (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle.

* The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year.
* The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years.
* The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid.
* The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs.

{{RoundBoxTop}}
==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ====
Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502?

While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that &quot;Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth,&quot; this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: 
# Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). 
# Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10])

'''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 ==

As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a &quot;Jubilee of Jubilees&quot; fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
 (7-3)(7+3) &amp;=  7^2 - 3^2 \\
 &amp;= 49 - 9 \\
 &amp;= 40
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40.

[[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] 

Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years):

[[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]]

&lt;div style=&quot;line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
* '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)'''
** Pre-Flood Patriarch years:
*:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
\frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &amp;= 1200 + 9 \\
 &amp;= 1209
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
** Post-Flood Patriarch years:
*:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
\frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &amp;= 1201 + 40 \\
 &amp;= 1241
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
** Total Years:
*:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
7^4 + 7^2 &amp;= 2401 + 49 \\
 &amp;= 2450
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

== The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection ==
Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition.

[[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]]

=== Determining Chronological Priority ===
A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 &quot;Jubilee of Jubilees.&quot;

This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's &quot;pivot&quot; position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment.

=== The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension ===
Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a &quot;week of Jubilees&quot; (343 years) plus a &quot;week of years&quot; (7 years).

&lt;div style=&quot;line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
* '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):'''
:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
 7^4 + 7^2 &amp;= 2401 + 49 \\
 &amp;= 2450
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

* '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):'''
:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
 \text{(Base 49): } &amp; 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\
 &amp;= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\
 &amp;= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } &amp; 70 \times 40 \\
 &amp;= 2800
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology ===
To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each):

* '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''.
* '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium.
* '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''.

Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record.


[[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]]

== The Masoretic text Variation ==


[[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]]

=== Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology ===
The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include:

==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ====
The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above &quot;Masoretic Adjustments&quot; section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior.

==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ====
The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the &quot;Lectio Difficilior Potior&quot; and &quot;The Birth of Shem (A Digression)&quot; sections, this change represents &quot;scribal smoothing.&quot; This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year.

==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ====
Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them.

The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline.

Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source (&quot;P&quot;) may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel.

==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ====
As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery.

This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam.

==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ====
Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence.

&lt;div style=&quot;line-height: 1.5;&quot;&gt;
* '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):'''
:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
 7^4 + 7^2 &amp;= 2401 + 49 \\
 &amp;= 2450
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

* '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):'''
:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
 \text{(Base 49): } &amp; 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\
 &amp;= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\
 &amp;= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } &amp; 70 \times 40 \\
 &amp;= 2800
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

* '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):'''
:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
(2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

As detailed in &quot;The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension,&quot; the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation.

Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition:

* '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years
* '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754)
* '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103)
* '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101)
* '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451)
* '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666)

This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures.

=== Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology ===
As was explained above in &quot;Septuagint Adjustments&quot;, the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood &quot;Long Chronology&quot; variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from &quot;Short Chronology&quot; values.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;&quot;
|+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son)

|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Patriarch
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;&quot; | SHORT CHRONOLOGY
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;&quot; | LONG CHRONOLOGY

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Jubilees &lt;br/&gt; (Jub)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Masoretic &lt;br/&gt; (MT)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Samaritan &lt;br/&gt; (SP)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Demetrius &lt;br/&gt; (204 BC)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Africanus &lt;br/&gt; (221 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Theophilus &lt;br/&gt; (192 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Septuagint &lt;br/&gt; (LXX)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Eusebius &lt;br/&gt; (325 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Josephus &lt;br/&gt; (94 AD)

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Adam
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 130
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 230

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Seth
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 105
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 205

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enosh
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 90
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 190

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Kenan
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 70
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 170

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Mahalalel
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 66
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 65
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 165

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Jared
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 61
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 162
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 62
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 162

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Enoch
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 65
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 165

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Methuselah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 65
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 187
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 67
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 187
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 167
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 167 / 187

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Lamech
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 55
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 182
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 53
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 188
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 182 / 188

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Noah
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 602
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 600
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 602
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 600
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | Varied

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Shem

|- style=&quot;background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black;&quot; | Pre-Flood TOTAL
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 1309
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 1656
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 1309
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2264
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2262
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2242
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Varied
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;&quot;

|+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son)
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Patriarch
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;&quot; | SHORT CHRONOLOGY
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;&quot; | LONG CHRONOLOGY

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Jubilees &lt;br/&gt; (Jub)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Masoretic &lt;br/&gt; (MT)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e3f2fd;&quot; | Samaritan &lt;br/&gt; (SP)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Demetrius &lt;br/&gt; (204 BC)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Africanus &lt;br/&gt; (221 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Theophilus &lt;br/&gt; (192 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Septuagint &lt;br/&gt; (LXX)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Eusebius &lt;br/&gt; (325 AD)
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#fff3e0;&quot; | Josephus &lt;br/&gt; (94 AD)

|- style=&quot;background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;  style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black;&quot; | Pre-Flood
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 1309
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 1656
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 1309
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2264
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2262
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2242
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Varied

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Arphaxad
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 66
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 35
| colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 135

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Cainan II
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 57
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | -
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 130
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | -
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 130
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | -

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Shelah
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 71
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 30
| colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 130

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Eber
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 64
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 34
| colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 134

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Peleg
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 61
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 30
| colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 130

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Reu
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 59
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 32
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 132
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 135
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 130

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Serug	
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 57
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 30
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 130
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 132

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Nahor
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 62
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 29
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 79
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 75
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 79 / 179
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 79
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 120

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Terah
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 70

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Abram
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 78
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 75

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Canaan
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 218
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 215

|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Egypt
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 238
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 430
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 215
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 430
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 215
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | Sinai +/-
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 40
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#f9f9f9;&quot; | -
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 46
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#e8e8e8;&quot; | 40

|- style=&quot;background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black;&quot; | GRAND TOTAL
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2450
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2666
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 2800
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 3885
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 3754
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; | 3938
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Varied
|}

== Living in the Rough ==

[[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]]

As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a &quot;generation&quot;) are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with &quot;living in the rough&quot;—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. 

Examples of this pattern include:
* '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; 
* '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; 
* '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. 

Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era.

Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the &quot;civilized&quot; city.

In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means &quot;supplanter&quot;—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a &quot;skillful hunter&quot; and a &quot;man of the field,&quot; while Jacob is &quot;dwelling in tents&quot; and cooking &quot;lentil stew.&quot;

The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers:
* In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. 
* In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this &quot;clever&quot; intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not.

Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. 

This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the &quot;rough&quot; of the wilderness.

Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three &quot;generations&quot; (3 x 40).

The relationship between these two &quot;three-fold&quot; lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
 49 - 9 &amp;= 40 \\
 3(49 - 9) &amp;= 3(40) \\
 147 - 27 &amp;= 120
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] 

Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the &quot;pastoralist&quot; ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the &quot;grain-based&quot; agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to &quot;wilderness living,&quot; the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit.

=== A narrative foil for Joshua ===
As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a &quot;foil&quot; for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three &quot;generations&quot; (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization.

This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding &quot;foil&quot; to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam?

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{aligned}
 49 - 9 &amp;= 40 \\
 70(49 - 9) &amp;= 70(40) \\
 3,430 - 630 &amp;= 2,800
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific &quot;foil&quot; to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind.

The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a &quot;Conquest Era&quot; epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC.

There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the &quot;irreconcilable&quot; nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent &quot;foil&quot; event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? 

As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare &quot;smoking gun&quot; for the artificial design of the chronology.

=== A Mystery Solved ===
In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest.

The significant milestones in this timeline include:
* '''Year 1''': &quot;This year the world and Adam were created.&quot; 
* '''Year 2801''': &quot;The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan.&quot; 
* '''Year 3423''': &quot;The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon.&quot;

According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological &quot;anchor&quot; was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself.

In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 &quot;generations&quot; of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the &quot;living rough&quot; wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 &quot;Jubilees&quot; of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; generation to the 70&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; Jubilee:

:&lt;math&gt;70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49&lt;/math&gt;

=== Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology ===
The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years:

* '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation.
* '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation.
* '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation.

The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year &quot;Tabernacle&quot; era''', which is composed of:
* The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness;
* The 6 years of the initial conquest;
* The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple.

Following the '''676-year &quot;Tabernacle&quot; era''' is a '''400-year &quot;First Temple&quot; era''' and a '''70-year &quot;Exile&quot; era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below.

[[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]]

The Book of Daniel states: &quot;In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it&quot; (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''.

The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure.

High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. 

Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows:
* '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''.
* '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''.
* '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''.

High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year &quot;Second Temple Persian Era&quot; (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. 

The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year &quot;Second Temple Hellenistic Era,&quot; which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC).

=== Competing Temples ===
There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year &quot;Second Temple Persian Era&quot; (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework.

According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel&quot; (Ezra 4:3).&lt;/blockquote&gt;

After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population.

[[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]]

This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC.

= The Rise of Zadok =
The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years:

* '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation.
* '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation.
* '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation.

The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section.  Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness.  To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event.

[[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]]

The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000.

= Hellenized Jews =
Hellenized Jews were
ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint.

[[Category:Religion]]</text>
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      <text bytes="102266" sha1="8tgluz4lai1fzajcm3m60d3aj4q86dj" xml:space="preserve">==Background==

===Richard II===
Richard II succeeded to the throne in 1377 on the death of his grandfather, [[w:Edward III of England|Edward III]], but his unpopularity had been growing since Richard's suppression of the [[w:Peasants' Revolt|Peasants' Revolt]] in 1381. He was increasingly criticised for his [[w:Patronage|Patronage]] of a few select [[w:Royal favourite|royal favourite]]s, to an extent that has been described as &quot;lavish to the point of foolishness&quot; by a biographer, historian [[w:Anthony Tuck|Anthony Tuck]].{{sfn|Tuck|2004a}} Parliament was also coming to the view that the King needed to rule as economically as was possible, and they observed with displeasure the King's distribution of extravagant patronage to a limited circle, the greatest recipient of which was [[w:Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk|Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk]].{{Sfn|Roskell|1984|p=47}} The King was also unpopular because of his choice of advisers, particularly de la Pole, the [[w:Lord Chancellor|chancellor]], who was felt to exert too much influence on [[w:foreign policy]] and so became inextricably linked with its failure. One 20th-century [[w:historian]], [[w:Clementine Oliver]], has described de la Pole as a &quot;staunch loyalist&quot;;{{sfn|Oliver|2010|p=87}} he had been elevated to the [[w:English peerage|peerage]] as [[w:Earl of Suffolk|Earl of Suffolk]] only the previous year,{{sfn|Tuck|2004a}} the first of his family to receive [[w:Peerage of the United Kingdom|a peerage]].{{sfn|Bloore|Martin|2015|p=106}}{{sfn|Pask|1996|p=43}}

===William Lambarde===
Lambarde was the royal archivist and had been instructed to bring the queen a calendar of manuscripts stored at [[W:Tower of London|the Tower]].{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}

===Elizabeth I===

Described as 'political role playing'.&lt;ref&gt;https://brill.com/display/book/9789401211666/B9789401211666-s009.xml?language=en&amp;srsltid=AfmBOoqTUaTQr0msNWRdtEZZ9qQ3rNcVkSoBvDPXuGv7nRvHrC8t5OzH&lt;/ref&gt;

====Essex's rebellion====
Seven months before Lambarde's discussion with Elizabeth.{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}

==IaR2==
Lambarde's account of his interview with the queen in August 1601 is well known.{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}


===Political anxiety and tension===

===Censorship===

==Consequences and aftermath==


===Theatre===

[[w:Stephen Greenblatt|Stephen Greenblatt]] argues that 'it is the theater—Shakespeare’s theater—that offered the key to understanding the crisis of the present' for Shakespeare's audience; did Elizabeth's declaration suggest she was fully aware of this?{{sfn|Greenblatt|2018|p=}}

It certainly argues to her understanding the power of the play; as does the scene's removal.{{sfn|Folger|2024}}&lt;ref&gt;https://www.folger.edu/podcasts/shakespeare-unlimited/tragedy-richard-ii-henry-iv-helen-castor/&lt;/ref&gt;

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230307261_2|title=Prologue: I am Richard II|last=Orgel|first=Stephen|date=2011|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-30726-1|editor-last=Petrina|editor-first=Alessandra|location=London|pages=11–43|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230307261_2|editor-last2=Tosi|editor-first2=Laura}}
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* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Studying_Shakespeare/1N4FBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA129&amp;printsec=frontcover Studying Shakespeare A Practical Introduction]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Essays_on_William_Faulkner/kAGBEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PT178&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Essays on William Faulkner]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/QY6aEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA216&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory 1945-2000]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Reign_of_Richard_II/cv0WAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dodd, G., R2]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Institution_of_Theat/Nkt9DAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA108&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Institution of Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Theory_of_the_King_s_Two_Bodies_in_t/8SRXAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Theory of the King's Two Bodies in the Age of Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Stealing_the_Story/RaJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Stealing the Story: Shakespeare's Self-Conscious Use of the Mimetic Tradition in the Tragedies]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Greenwood_Companion_to_Shakespeare_O/JkcgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Greenwood Companion to Shakespeare: Overviews and the history plays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/British_and_Irish_Literature_and_Its_Tim/xH4jAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover British and Irish Literature and Its Times]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Philosophy_of_History_Reve/1jwgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Philosophy of History Revealed in a Detailed Analysis of Henry V and Examined in Other History Plays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_His_Contemporaries/7em7coOthxQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and His Contemporaries]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Politics_of_the_Public_Sphere_in_Ear/0sGHAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Politics of the Public Sphere in Early Modern England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Catholic_Religion/Fl4gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0&amp;bsq=%22I%20am%20Richard%20II,%20know%20ye%20not%20that?%22 Shakespeare and the Catholic religion]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Proceedings_of_the_British_Academy_Volum/8CsoAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Lectures]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Slander_and_Censorship_in_Late_Sixteenth/wb_oAvuJgbAC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Slander and Censorship in Late Sixteenth Century Literature]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabethan_Literature_and_the_Law_of_Fr/vBFdAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabethan Literature and the Law of Fraudulent Conveyance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Hamlet_History_and_commentary/yxgrAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Hamlet History etc]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_A_Popular_Life/1BuaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare: a popular life]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_State_of_Mind/pCiIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover A State of Mind?]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Dramatic_Genres/J5FlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Dramatic Genres]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Literature_Criticism_from_1400_to_1800/O6VkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800 Volume 89]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Papist/LPwNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare the Papist]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Goslicius_Ideal_Senator_and_His_Cultural/1jc7AQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Goslicius' Ideal Senator and His Cultural Impact Over the Centuries]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_by_Another_Name/FqllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover &quot;Shakespeare&quot; by Another Name]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Friends/AlZlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Friends]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Dr_Simon_Forman/qHceAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dr Simon Forman]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_the_Wars_of_the_Rose/dZFlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare, the Wars of the Roses and the historians]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Criticism/2TdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Criticism]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poetry_History_and_Antiquarianism_in_Ref/jwIhAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poetry, History, and Antiquarianism in Reformation England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Prince_of_Love/D0QgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Prince of Love]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Paper_Bullets_of_the_Brain/o0YgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Paper Bullets of the Brain]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/As_You_Like_It/GiBaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover As You Like It: Third Series]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WCqaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare, Dominic Shellard]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poets_and_God/0XZlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poets and God]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Law_and_Literature/Ax5MAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Law and Literature Volume 16]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Embodied_Word/FV8sAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Embodied Word]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Case_for_Shakespeare/WaRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Case for Shakespeare: The End of the Authorship Question]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Explorations_in_Renaissance_Culture/_SYrAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Explorations in Renaissance Culture Volumes 33-34]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Touch_of_the_Real/ewdaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Touch of the Real: Essays in Early Modern Culture in Honour of Stephen Greenblatt]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Wotton_and_His_Worlds/ZfgNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Wotton and his Worlds]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Theatre_and_Religion/wo1lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Theatre and Religion Lancastrian Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Trying_Treason/TOKxAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Trying Treason]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Willing_Subjects/IEX0sGwT1QQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Willing Subjects]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Symbolism/Bt0ZAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Symbolism]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Performing_Shakespeare/35pQAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Performing Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Soul_of_the_Age/e0UgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/England/aD9nAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/-GtnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/oGUMX4RntjgC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA25&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Legal_Imagination/OXPvBqQLw-4C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA38&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the legal imagination]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Theatre/GxN3ue9_r3oC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA69&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Essays_on_Shakespeare_s_Richard/AaYoAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Reign_of_Richard_II_Essays_in_Honour/y3xnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Reign of Richard II: Essays in Honour of May McKisack]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poetry_and_the_Realm_of_Politics/oQFaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poetry and the Realm of Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/BM0mAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Politics/oTdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Theatrical_Dimension/wl4gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, the Theatrical Dimension]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Who_was_Kit_Marlowe/zQ1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kit Marlowe etc]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/From_Page_to_Performance/beQKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover From Page to Performance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Exploring_Tudor_England/ax56AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Exploring Tudor England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Movement_Towards_Subversion/vyJaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Movement Towards Subversion]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Typological_Satire/G5BlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Typological Satire]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Recycled/zzNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare Recycled]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Reinventing_the_Middle_Ages_the_Renaissa/fXFnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Reinventing the Middle Ages &amp; the Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Mysterious_William_Shakespeare/WnllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Mysterious William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/GHhlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II Critical Essays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WJvC6gu_I0gC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare: Records and Images]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Actors/HYtlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Actors]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Man/BVdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare the man]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Henry_V/zXllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Henry V: A Guide to the Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Contingencies/Cw1NAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Contingencies]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Drama/E60kAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Drama 1990]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Language_Discourse_Sign/uH4oAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Language, Discourse, Sign]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Mock_Kings_in_Medieval_Society_and_Renai/T98KAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Mock kings in medieval society and Renaissance drama]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Invention_of_the_Human/ojHirImrtYoC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare: Invention of the Human]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/wn5lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Persons_in_Groups/rQ24AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Persons in Groups]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/All_Semblative_a_Woman_s_Part/0DlaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover All Semblative a Woman's Part?]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Crossing_the_Mirror/qRZNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Crossing the Mirror]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/De_Vere_is_Shakespeare/dKJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover De Vere is Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Lambarde_Elizabethan_Antiquary_1/x1RnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Lambarde, Elizabethan Antiquary, 1536-1601]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Power_of_Forms_in_the_English_Renais/cPtZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ravishment_and_Rememberance/G31LAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ravishment and Rememberance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_His_Theatre/8A5ZQq3uOVQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and His Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Hermeneutics_and_Shakespeare_s/O10gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Hermeneutics and Shakespeare's History Plays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Christian_England/K-WfAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Christian England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Religious_Background/xDSaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Religious Background]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shylock/N4RlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shylock]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Legacy/MM5XAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare Legacy]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Genres/0uFZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Genres]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Cannibals_Witches_and_Divorce/qZRpAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Cannibals, Witches, and Divorce]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Problem_of_Religious_Knowledge/C29LAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Problem of Religious Knowledge]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Essex_and_the_Great_Revolt_of_1381/J8RzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Essex and the Great Revolt of 1381]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Transactions_of_the_London_and_Middlesex/4dtJAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover TLMAS]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Politics_and_the_State/Mn9lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, Politics and the State]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Allegories_of_Power_in_the_England_of_El/LIYgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Allegories of Power in the England of Elizabeth]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/rIVlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Women_s_Matters/PDRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Women's Matters]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Weak_King_Dilemma_in_the_Shakespeare/0bJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Weak King Dilemma in the Shakespearean History Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Book_Known_as_Q/S2tlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Book Known as Q]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Fields_of_Vision/OD0eAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Fields of Vision]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ungodly_Delights/RKgcAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ungodly Delights]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Handbook/rLRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare HandboOK]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Humanities/y5FZAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Humanities]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II_by_William_Shakespeare/Bb3yAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II by William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/50NnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Murder_Under_Trust_Or_The_Topical_Macbet/0oNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Murder under trust]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespearean_Kings/tHBlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespearean Kings]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/America_the_Mabr_e_y_Experience/mRQ3AAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover America, the Mabr(e)y Experience: Resistance, Revolution &amp; Civil War]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/ZDEkAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II: An Annotated Bibliography, Volume 2]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Batsford_Companion_to_Medieval_Engla/ev78b9EJQy0C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Batsford Companion to Medieval England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Unruly_Women/FKFlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Unruly Women]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Others/iFEgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Others]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Kings_and_Chroniclers/L1wpAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kings and Chroniclers]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_Kingdom_for_a_Stage/UzxlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover A Kingdom for a Stage]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_House_of_Commons/Ezz4OZuYVFYC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1558-1603 (3 v.)]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Soul_of_the_Age/nMYCAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover shakespeare, Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/After_Poststructuralism/TOaEAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0&amp;bsq=%22I%20am%20Richard%20II,%20know%20ye%20not%20that?%22 After Poststructuralism: Interdisciplinarity and Literary Theory]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Unschooled_Mind/C7WnYtt219IC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Unschooled Mind]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/hHZnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Eliz I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Dramas_of_Christian_Time/mnIqAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dramas of Christian Time]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/XjQmAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/John_Dryden/9Q1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover John Dryden]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Early_Modern_Political_T/DUwhAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA259&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Early Modern Political Thought]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_English_History_Play_in_the_age_of_S/5TT-AQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA158&amp;printsec=frontcover The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Political/rEcREQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA215&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Political]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_Subject_of_the_Crown/a7G6DAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PT18&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare - Subject of the Crown?]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;client=firefox-b-d&amp;hs=4AQ&amp;sca_esv=6d4ade7bd26771c9&amp;udm=36&amp;biw=2510&amp;bih=1307&amp;tbs=cdr%3A1%2Ccd_min%3A2000%2Ccd_max%3A2099&amp;sxsrf=ANbL-n6I6Pkwl7mmdHK6N1xPQXLbGBIOSg%3A1776853062010&amp;ei=RqDoaZUvztiFsg_I5bToDw&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiV6tC8nYGUAxVObEEAHcgyDf0Q4dUDCBM&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;gs_lp=EhBnd3Mtd2l6LW1vZGVsZXNzIiYic2hha2VzcGVhcmUiICsgInBvbGl0aWNhbCBwcm9wYWdhbmRhIjIIECEYoAEYwwRInQlQxgZYuwdwAXgAkAEAmAF_oAHPAaoBAzEuMbgBA8gBAPgBAZgCAqACVsICCxAAGIAEGKIEGLADmAMAiAYBkAYCkgcBMqAHowOyBwExuAdTwgcDMC4yyAcEgAgB&amp;sclient=gws-wiz-modeless The Nazi Appropriation of Shakespeare: Cultural Politics in]
{{refend}}

==IaR2==
Lambarde's account of his interview with the queen in August 1601 is well known.{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}


===Political anxiety and tension===

===Censorship===
* Contemporary censorship

==Consequences and aftermath==


===Theatre===

[[w:Stephen Greenblatt|Stephen Greenblatt]] argues that 'it is the theater—Shakespeare’s theater—that offered the key to understanding the crisis of the present' for Shakespeare's audience; did Elizabeth's declaration suggest she was fully aware of this?{{sfn|Greenblatt|2018|p=}}

It certainly argues to her understanding the power of the play; as does the scene's removal.{{sfn|Folger|2024}}&lt;ref&gt;https://www.folger.edu/podcasts/shakespeare-unlimited/tragedy-richard-ii-henry-iv-helen-castor/&lt;/ref&gt;

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230307261_2|title=Prologue: I am Richard II|last=Orgel|first=Stephen|date=2011|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-30726-1|editor-last=Petrina|editor-first=Alessandra|location=London|pages=11–43|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230307261_2|editor-last2=Tosi|editor-first2=Laura}}
* [https://broadlytextual.com/2017/12/15/i-am-richard-ii-know-ye-not-that-drama-and-political-anxiety-in-shakespeares-london/ Hixon, E., Syracuse Univ]
* Bate, Jonathan (2008). Soul of the Age. London: Penguin. pp. 256–286. ISBN 978-0-670-91482-1.
* [https://theconversation.com/richard-ii-by-william-shakespeare-why-the-divine-right-of-kings-still-matters-186648 McFarlane, K., Univ South Australia]
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* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Proceedings_of_the_British_Academy_Volum/8CsoAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Lectures]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Slander_and_Censorship_in_Late_Sixteenth/wb_oAvuJgbAC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Slander and Censorship in Late Sixteenth Century Literature]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabethan_Literature_and_the_Law_of_Fr/vBFdAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabethan Literature and the Law of Fraudulent Conveyance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Hamlet_History_and_commentary/yxgrAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Hamlet History etc]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_A_Popular_Life/1BuaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare: a popular life]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_State_of_Mind/pCiIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover A State of Mind?]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Dramatic_Genres/J5FlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Dramatic Genres]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Literature_Criticism_from_1400_to_1800/O6VkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800 Volume 89]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Papist/LPwNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare the Papist]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Goslicius_Ideal_Senator_and_His_Cultural/1jc7AQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Goslicius' Ideal Senator and His Cultural Impact Over the Centuries]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_by_Another_Name/FqllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover &quot;Shakespeare&quot; by Another Name]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Friends/AlZlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Friends]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Dr_Simon_Forman/qHceAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dr Simon Forman]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_the_Wars_of_the_Rose/dZFlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare, the Wars of the Roses and the historians]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Criticism/2TdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Criticism]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poetry_History_and_Antiquarianism_in_Ref/jwIhAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poetry, History, and Antiquarianism in Reformation England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Prince_of_Love/D0QgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Prince of Love]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Paper_Bullets_of_the_Brain/o0YgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Paper Bullets of the Brain]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/As_You_Like_It/GiBaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover As You Like It: Third Series]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WCqaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare, Dominic Shellard]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poets_and_God/0XZlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poets and God]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Law_and_Literature/Ax5MAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Law and Literature Volume 16]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Embodied_Word/FV8sAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Embodied Word]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Case_for_Shakespeare/WaRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Case for Shakespeare: The End of the Authorship Question]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Explorations_in_Renaissance_Culture/_SYrAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Explorations in Renaissance Culture Volumes 33-34]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Touch_of_the_Real/ewdaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Touch of the Real: Essays in Early Modern Culture in Honour of Stephen Greenblatt]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Wotton_and_His_Worlds/ZfgNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Wotton and his Worlds]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Theatre_and_Religion/wo1lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Theatre and Religion Lancastrian Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Trying_Treason/TOKxAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Trying Treason]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Willing_Subjects/IEX0sGwT1QQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Willing Subjects]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Symbolism/Bt0ZAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Symbolism]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Performing_Shakespeare/35pQAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Performing Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Soul_of_the_Age/e0UgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/England/aD9nAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/-GtnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/oGUMX4RntjgC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA25&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Legal_Imagination/OXPvBqQLw-4C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA38&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the legal imagination]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Theatre/GxN3ue9_r3oC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA69&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Essays_on_Shakespeare_s_Richard/AaYoAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Reign_of_Richard_II_Essays_in_Honour/y3xnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Reign of Richard II: Essays in Honour of May McKisack]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poetry_and_the_Realm_of_Politics/oQFaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poetry and the Realm of Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/BM0mAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Politics/oTdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Theatrical_Dimension/wl4gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, the Theatrical Dimension]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Who_was_Kit_Marlowe/zQ1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kit Marlowe etc]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/From_Page_to_Performance/beQKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover From Page to Performance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Exploring_Tudor_England/ax56AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Exploring Tudor England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Movement_Towards_Subversion/vyJaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Movement Towards Subversion]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Typological_Satire/G5BlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Typological Satire]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Recycled/zzNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare Recycled]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Reinventing_the_Middle_Ages_the_Renaissa/fXFnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Reinventing the Middle Ages &amp; the Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Mysterious_William_Shakespeare/WnllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Mysterious William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/GHhlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II Critical Essays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WJvC6gu_I0gC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare: Records and Images]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Actors/HYtlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Actors]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Man/BVdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare the man]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Henry_V/zXllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Henry V: A Guide to the Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Contingencies/Cw1NAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Contingencies]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Drama/E60kAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Drama 1990]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Language_Discourse_Sign/uH4oAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Language, Discourse, Sign]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Mock_Kings_in_Medieval_Society_and_Renai/T98KAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Mock kings in medieval society and Renaissance drama]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Invention_of_the_Human/ojHirImrtYoC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare: Invention of the Human]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/wn5lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Persons_in_Groups/rQ24AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Persons in Groups]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/All_Semblative_a_Woman_s_Part/0DlaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover All Semblative a Woman's Part?]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Crossing_the_Mirror/qRZNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Crossing the Mirror]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/De_Vere_is_Shakespeare/dKJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover De Vere is Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Lambarde_Elizabethan_Antiquary_1/x1RnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Lambarde, Elizabethan Antiquary, 1536-1601]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Power_of_Forms_in_the_English_Renais/cPtZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ravishment_and_Rememberance/G31LAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ravishment and Rememberance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_His_Theatre/8A5ZQq3uOVQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and His Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Hermeneutics_and_Shakespeare_s/O10gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Hermeneutics and Shakespeare's History Plays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Christian_England/K-WfAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Christian England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Religious_Background/xDSaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Religious Background]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shylock/N4RlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shylock]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Legacy/MM5XAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare Legacy]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Genres/0uFZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Genres]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Cannibals_Witches_and_Divorce/qZRpAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Cannibals, Witches, and Divorce]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Problem_of_Religious_Knowledge/C29LAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Problem of Religious Knowledge]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Essex_and_the_Great_Revolt_of_1381/J8RzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Essex and the Great Revolt of 1381]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Transactions_of_the_London_and_Middlesex/4dtJAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover TLMAS]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Politics_and_the_State/Mn9lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, Politics and the State]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Allegories_of_Power_in_the_England_of_El/LIYgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Allegories of Power in the England of Elizabeth]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/rIVlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Women_s_Matters/PDRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Women's Matters]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Weak_King_Dilemma_in_the_Shakespeare/0bJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Weak King Dilemma in the Shakespearean History Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Book_Known_as_Q/S2tlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Book Known as Q]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Fields_of_Vision/OD0eAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Fields of Vision]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ungodly_Delights/RKgcAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ungodly Delights]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Handbook/rLRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare HandboOK]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Humanities/y5FZAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Humanities]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II_by_William_Shakespeare/Bb3yAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II by William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/50NnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Murder_Under_Trust_Or_The_Topical_Macbet/0oNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Murder under trust]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespearean_Kings/tHBlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespearean Kings]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/America_the_Mabr_e_y_Experience/mRQ3AAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover America, the Mabr(e)y Experience: Resistance, Revolution &amp; Civil War]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/ZDEkAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II: An Annotated Bibliography, Volume 2]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Batsford_Companion_to_Medieval_Engla/ev78b9EJQy0C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Batsford Companion to Medieval England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Unruly_Women/FKFlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Unruly Women]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Others/iFEgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Others]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Kings_and_Chroniclers/L1wpAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kings and Chroniclers]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_Kingdom_for_a_Stage/UzxlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover A Kingdom for a Stage]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_House_of_Commons/Ezz4OZuYVFYC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1558-1603 (3 v.)]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Soul_of_the_Age/nMYCAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover shakespeare, Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/After_Poststructuralism/TOaEAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0&amp;bsq=%22I%20am%20Richard%20II,%20know%20ye%20not%20that?%22 After Poststructuralism: Interdisciplinarity and Literary Theory]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Unschooled_Mind/C7WnYtt219IC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Unschooled Mind]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/hHZnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Eliz I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Dramas_of_Christian_Time/mnIqAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dramas of Christian Time]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/XjQmAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/John_Dryden/9Q1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover John Dryden]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Early_Modern_Political_T/DUwhAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA259&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Early Modern Political Thought]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_English_History_Play_in_the_age_of_S/5TT-AQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA158&amp;printsec=frontcover The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Political/rEcREQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA215&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Political]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_Subject_of_the_Crown/a7G6DAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PT18&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare - Subject of the Crown?]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;client=firefox-b-d&amp;hs=4AQ&amp;sca_esv=6d4ade7bd26771c9&amp;udm=36&amp;biw=2510&amp;bih=1307&amp;tbs=cdr%3A1%2Ccd_min%3A2000%2Ccd_max%3A2099&amp;sxsrf=ANbL-n6I6Pkwl7mmdHK6N1xPQXLbGBIOSg%3A1776853062010&amp;ei=RqDoaZUvztiFsg_I5bToDw&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiV6tC8nYGUAxVObEEAHcgyDf0Q4dUDCBM&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;gs_lp=EhBnd3Mtd2l6LW1vZGVsZXNzIiYic2hha2VzcGVhcmUiICsgInBvbGl0aWNhbCBwcm9wYWdhbmRhIjIIECEYoAEYwwRInQlQxgZYuwdwAXgAkAEAmAF_oAHPAaoBAzEuMbgBA8gBAPgBAZgCAqACVsICCxAAGIAEGKIEGLADmAMAiAYBkAYCkgcBMqAHowOyBwExuAdTwgcDMC4yyAcEgAgB&amp;sclient=gws-wiz-modeless The Nazi Appropriation of Shakespeare: Cultural Politics in]
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      <text bytes="102381" sha1="0qrcrlkjkxovlsqhj4sxu38vu5jb47i" xml:space="preserve">==Background==

===Richard II===
Richard II succeeded to the throne in 1377 on the death of his grandfather, [[w:Edward III of England|Edward III]], but his unpopularity had been growing since Richard's suppression of the [[w:Peasants' Revolt|Peasants' Revolt]] in 1381. He was increasingly criticised for his [[w:Patronage|Patronage]] of a few select [[w:Royal favourite|royal favourite]]s, to an extent that has been described as &quot;lavish to the point of foolishness&quot; by a biographer, historian [[w:Anthony Tuck|Anthony Tuck]].{{sfn|Tuck|2004a}} Parliament was also coming to the view that the King needed to rule as economically as was possible, and they observed with displeasure the King's distribution of extravagant patronage to a limited circle, the greatest recipient of which was [[w:Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk|Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk]].{{Sfn|Roskell|1984|p=47}} The King was also unpopular because of his choice of advisers, particularly de la Pole, the [[w:Lord Chancellor|chancellor]], who was felt to exert too much influence on [[w:foreign policy]] and so became inextricably linked with its failure. One 20th-century [[w:historian]], [[w:Clementine Oliver]], has described de la Pole as a &quot;staunch loyalist&quot;;{{sfn|Oliver|2010|p=87}} he had been elevated to the [[w:English peerage|peerage]] as [[w:Earl of Suffolk|Earl of Suffolk]] only the previous year,{{sfn|Tuck|2004a}} the first of his family to receive [[w:Peerage of the United Kingdom|a peerage]].{{sfn|Bloore|Martin|2015|p=106}}{{sfn|Pask|1996|p=43}}

===William Lambarde===
Lambarde was the royal archivist and had been instructed to bring the queen a calendar of manuscripts stored at [[W:Tower of London|the Tower]].{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}

===Elizabeth I===

Described as 'political role playing'.&lt;ref&gt;https://brill.com/display/book/9789401211666/B9789401211666-s009.xml?language=en&amp;srsltid=AfmBOoqTUaTQr0msNWRdtEZZ9qQ3rNcVkSoBvDPXuGv7nRvHrC8t5OzH&lt;/ref&gt;

====Essex's rebellion====
Seven months before Lambarde's discussion with Elizabeth.{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}

==IaR2==
Lambarde's account of his interview with the queen in August 1601 is well known.{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}


===Political anxiety and tension===

===Censorship===

==Consequences and aftermath==


===Theatre===

[[w:Stephen Greenblatt|Stephen Greenblatt]] argues that 'it is the theater—Shakespeare’s theater—that offered the key to understanding the crisis of the present' for Shakespeare's audience; did Elizabeth's declaration suggest she was fully aware of this?{{sfn|Greenblatt|2018|p=}}

It certainly argues to her understanding the power of the play; as does the scene's removal.{{sfn|Folger|2024}}&lt;ref&gt;https://www.folger.edu/podcasts/shakespeare-unlimited/tragedy-richard-ii-henry-iv-helen-castor/&lt;/ref&gt;

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230307261_2|title=Prologue: I am Richard II|last=Orgel|first=Stephen|date=2011|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-30726-1|editor-last=Petrina|editor-first=Alessandra|location=London|pages=11–43|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230307261_2|editor-last2=Tosi|editor-first2=Laura}}
* [https://broadlytextual.com/2017/12/15/i-am-richard-ii-know-ye-not-that-drama-and-political-anxiety-in-shakespeares-london/ Hixon, E., Syracuse Univ]
* Bate, Jonathan (2008). Soul of the Age. London: Penguin. pp. 256–286. ISBN 978-0-670-91482-1.
* [https://theconversation.com/richard-ii-by-william-shakespeare-why-the-divine-right-of-kings-still-matters-186648 McFarlane, K., Univ South Australia]
* [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/31090/summary Lemon, Rebecca. &quot;The Faulty Verdict in &quot;The Crown v. John Hayward&quot;.&quot; SEL Studies in English Literature 1500-1900, vol. 41 no. 1, 2001, p. 109-132. Project MUSE, https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sel.2001.0009]
* [https://brill.com/display/book/9789401211666/B9789401211666-s009.xml?language=en&amp;srsltid=AfmBOoqTUaTQr0msNWRdtEZZ9qQ3rNcVkSoBvDPXuGv7nRvHrC8t5OzH Kizelbach, U. (2014), In The Pragmatics of Early Modern Politics: Power and Kingship in Shakespeare’s History Plays. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401211666_009]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/z-kOAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Lopez, R2]
* [https://www.manchesterhive.com/display/9781526130532/9781526130532.00008.xml?print rgel, S. (2017). &quot;I am Richard II&quot;. In Spectacular Performances. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. Retrieved Apr 22, 2026, from https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526130532.00008]
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* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_A_Popular_Life/1BuaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare: a popular life]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_State_of_Mind/pCiIAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover A State of Mind?]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Dramatic_Genres/J5FlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Dramatic Genres]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Literature_Criticism_from_1400_to_1800/O6VkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800 Volume 89]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Papist/LPwNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare the Papist]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Goslicius_Ideal_Senator_and_His_Cultural/1jc7AQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Goslicius' Ideal Senator and His Cultural Impact Over the Centuries]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_by_Another_Name/FqllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover &quot;Shakespeare&quot; by Another Name]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Friends/AlZlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Friends]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Dr_Simon_Forman/qHceAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dr Simon Forman]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_the_Wars_of_the_Rose/dZFlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare, the Wars of the Roses and the historians]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Criticism/2TdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Criticism]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poetry_History_and_Antiquarianism_in_Ref/jwIhAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poetry, History, and Antiquarianism in Reformation England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Prince_of_Love/D0QgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Prince of Love]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Paper_Bullets_of_the_Brain/o0YgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Paper Bullets of the Brain]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/As_You_Like_It/GiBaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover As You Like It: Third Series]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WCqaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare, Dominic Shellard]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poets_and_God/0XZlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poets and God]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Law_and_Literature/Ax5MAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Law and Literature Volume 16]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Embodied_Word/FV8sAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Embodied Word]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Case_for_Shakespeare/WaRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Case for Shakespeare: The End of the Authorship Question]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Explorations_in_Renaissance_Culture/_SYrAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Explorations in Renaissance Culture Volumes 33-34]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Touch_of_the_Real/ewdaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Touch of the Real: Essays in Early Modern Culture in Honour of Stephen Greenblatt]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Wotton_and_His_Worlds/ZfgNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Wotton and his Worlds]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Theatre_and_Religion/wo1lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Theatre and Religion Lancastrian Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Trying_Treason/TOKxAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Trying Treason]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Willing_Subjects/IEX0sGwT1QQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Willing Subjects]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Symbolism/Bt0ZAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Symbolism]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Performing_Shakespeare/35pQAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Performing Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Soul_of_the_Age/e0UgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/England/aD9nAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/-GtnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/oGUMX4RntjgC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA25&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Legal_Imagination/OXPvBqQLw-4C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA38&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the legal imagination]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Theatre/GxN3ue9_r3oC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA69&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Essays_on_Shakespeare_s_Richard/AaYoAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Reign_of_Richard_II_Essays_in_Honour/y3xnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Reign of Richard II: Essays in Honour of May McKisack]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poetry_and_the_Realm_of_Politics/oQFaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poetry and the Realm of Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/BM0mAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Politics/oTdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Theatrical_Dimension/wl4gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, the Theatrical Dimension]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Who_was_Kit_Marlowe/zQ1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kit Marlowe etc]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/From_Page_to_Performance/beQKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover From Page to Performance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Exploring_Tudor_England/ax56AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Exploring Tudor England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Movement_Towards_Subversion/vyJaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Movement Towards Subversion]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Typological_Satire/G5BlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Typological Satire]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Recycled/zzNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare Recycled]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Reinventing_the_Middle_Ages_the_Renaissa/fXFnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Reinventing the Middle Ages &amp; the Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Mysterious_William_Shakespeare/WnllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Mysterious William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/GHhlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II Critical Essays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WJvC6gu_I0gC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare: Records and Images]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Actors/HYtlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Actors]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Man/BVdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare the man]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Henry_V/zXllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Henry V: A Guide to the Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Contingencies/Cw1NAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Contingencies]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Drama/E60kAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Drama 1990]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Language_Discourse_Sign/uH4oAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Language, Discourse, Sign]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Mock_Kings_in_Medieval_Society_and_Renai/T98KAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Mock kings in medieval society and Renaissance drama]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Invention_of_the_Human/ojHirImrtYoC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare: Invention of the Human]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/wn5lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Persons_in_Groups/rQ24AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Persons in Groups]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/All_Semblative_a_Woman_s_Part/0DlaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover All Semblative a Woman's Part?]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Crossing_the_Mirror/qRZNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Crossing the Mirror]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/De_Vere_is_Shakespeare/dKJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover De Vere is Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Lambarde_Elizabethan_Antiquary_1/x1RnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Lambarde, Elizabethan Antiquary, 1536-1601]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Power_of_Forms_in_the_English_Renais/cPtZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ravishment_and_Rememberance/G31LAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ravishment and Rememberance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_His_Theatre/8A5ZQq3uOVQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and His Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Hermeneutics_and_Shakespeare_s/O10gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Hermeneutics and Shakespeare's History Plays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Christian_England/K-WfAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Christian England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Religious_Background/xDSaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Religious Background]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shylock/N4RlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shylock]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Legacy/MM5XAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare Legacy]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Genres/0uFZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Genres]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Cannibals_Witches_and_Divorce/qZRpAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Cannibals, Witches, and Divorce]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Problem_of_Religious_Knowledge/C29LAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Problem of Religious Knowledge]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Essex_and_the_Great_Revolt_of_1381/J8RzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Essex and the Great Revolt of 1381]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Transactions_of_the_London_and_Middlesex/4dtJAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover TLMAS]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Politics_and_the_State/Mn9lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, Politics and the State]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Allegories_of_Power_in_the_England_of_El/LIYgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Allegories of Power in the England of Elizabeth]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/rIVlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Women_s_Matters/PDRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Women's Matters]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Weak_King_Dilemma_in_the_Shakespeare/0bJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Weak King Dilemma in the Shakespearean History Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Book_Known_as_Q/S2tlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Book Known as Q]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Fields_of_Vision/OD0eAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Fields of Vision]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ungodly_Delights/RKgcAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ungodly Delights]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Handbook/rLRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare HandboOK]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Humanities/y5FZAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Humanities]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II_by_William_Shakespeare/Bb3yAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II by William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/50NnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Murder_Under_Trust_Or_The_Topical_Macbet/0oNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Murder under trust]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespearean_Kings/tHBlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespearean Kings]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/America_the_Mabr_e_y_Experience/mRQ3AAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover America, the Mabr(e)y Experience: Resistance, Revolution &amp; Civil War]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/ZDEkAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II: An Annotated Bibliography, Volume 2]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Batsford_Companion_to_Medieval_Engla/ev78b9EJQy0C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Batsford Companion to Medieval England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Unruly_Women/FKFlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Unruly Women]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Others/iFEgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Others]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Kings_and_Chroniclers/L1wpAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kings and Chroniclers]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_Kingdom_for_a_Stage/UzxlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover A Kingdom for a Stage]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_House_of_Commons/Ezz4OZuYVFYC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1558-1603 (3 v.)]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Soul_of_the_Age/nMYCAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover shakespeare, Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/After_Poststructuralism/TOaEAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0&amp;bsq=%22I%20am%20Richard%20II,%20know%20ye%20not%20that?%22 After Poststructuralism: Interdisciplinarity and Literary Theory]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Unschooled_Mind/C7WnYtt219IC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Unschooled Mind]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/hHZnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Eliz I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Dramas_of_Christian_Time/mnIqAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dramas of Christian Time]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/XjQmAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/John_Dryden/9Q1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover John Dryden]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Early_Modern_Political_T/DUwhAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA259&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Early Modern Political Thought]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_English_History_Play_in_the_age_of_S/5TT-AQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA158&amp;printsec=frontcover The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Political/rEcREQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA215&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Political]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_Subject_of_the_Crown/a7G6DAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PT18&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare - Subject of the Crown?]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;client=firefox-b-d&amp;hs=4AQ&amp;sca_esv=6d4ade7bd26771c9&amp;udm=36&amp;biw=2510&amp;bih=1307&amp;tbs=cdr%3A1%2Ccd_min%3A2000%2Ccd_max%3A2099&amp;sxsrf=ANbL-n6I6Pkwl7mmdHK6N1xPQXLbGBIOSg%3A1776853062010&amp;ei=RqDoaZUvztiFsg_I5bToDw&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiV6tC8nYGUAxVObEEAHcgyDf0Q4dUDCBM&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;gs_lp=EhBnd3Mtd2l6LW1vZGVsZXNzIiYic2hha2VzcGVhcmUiICsgInBvbGl0aWNhbCBwcm9wYWdhbmRhIjIIECEYoAEYwwRInQlQxgZYuwdwAXgAkAEAmAF_oAHPAaoBAzEuMbgBA8gBAPgBAZgCAqACVsICCxAAGIAEGKIEGLADmAMAiAYBkAYCkgcBMqAHowOyBwExuAdTwgcDMC4yyAcEgAgB&amp;sclient=gws-wiz-modeless The Nazi Appropriation of Shakespeare: Cultural Politics in]
{{refend}}

==IaR2==
Lambarde's account of his interview with the queen in August 1601 is well known.{{sfn|Orgel|2011|pp=11–43}}


===Political anxiety and tension===

===Censorship===
* Contemporary censorship
*Later censorship (consider similar reactions by later administrations for reasons similar to those of Elizabeth).

==Consequences and aftermath==


===Theatre===

[[w:Stephen Greenblatt|Stephen Greenblatt]] argues that 'it is the theater—Shakespeare’s theater—that offered the key to understanding the crisis of the present' for Shakespeare's audience; did Elizabeth's declaration suggest she was fully aware of this?{{sfn|Greenblatt|2018|p=}}

It certainly argues to her understanding the power of the play; as does the scene's removal.{{sfn|Folger|2024}}&lt;ref&gt;https://www.folger.edu/podcasts/shakespeare-unlimited/tragedy-richard-ii-henry-iv-helen-castor/&lt;/ref&gt;

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/As_You_Like_It/GiBaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover As You Like It: Third Series]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WCqaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare, Dominic Shellard]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poets_and_God/0XZlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poets and God]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Law_and_Literature/Ax5MAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Law and Literature Volume 16]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Embodied_Word/FV8sAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Embodied Word]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Case_for_Shakespeare/WaRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Case for Shakespeare: The End of the Authorship Question]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Explorations_in_Renaissance_Culture/_SYrAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Explorations in Renaissance Culture Volumes 33-34]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Touch_of_the_Real/ewdaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Touch of the Real: Essays in Early Modern Culture in Honour of Stephen Greenblatt]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Wotton_and_His_Worlds/ZfgNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Wotton and his Worlds]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Theatre_and_Religion/wo1lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Theatre and Religion Lancastrian Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Trying_Treason/TOKxAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Trying Treason]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Willing_Subjects/IEX0sGwT1QQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Willing Subjects]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Symbolism/Bt0ZAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Symbolism]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Performing_Shakespeare/35pQAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Performing Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Soul_of_the_Age/e0UgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/England/aD9nAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/-GtnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/oGUMX4RntjgC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA25&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Legal_Imagination/OXPvBqQLw-4C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA38&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the legal imagination]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Theatre/GxN3ue9_r3oC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;pg=PA69&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Essays_on_Shakespeare_s_Richard/AaYoAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Reign_of_Richard_II_Essays_in_Honour/y3xnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Reign of Richard II: Essays in Honour of May McKisack]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Poetry_and_the_Realm_of_Politics/oQFaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Poetry and the Realm of Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/BM0mAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Politics/oTdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Politics]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Theatrical_Dimension/wl4gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, the Theatrical Dimension]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Who_was_Kit_Marlowe/zQ1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kit Marlowe etc]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/From_Page_to_Performance/beQKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover From Page to Performance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Exploring_Tudor_England/ax56AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Exploring Tudor England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Movement_Towards_Subversion/vyJaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Movement Towards Subversion]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Typological_Satire/G5BlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Typological Satire]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Recycled/zzNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare Recycled]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Reinventing_the_Middle_Ages_the_Renaissa/fXFnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Reinventing the Middle Ages &amp; the Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Mysterious_William_Shakespeare/WnllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Mysterious William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/GHhlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II Critical Essays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/WJvC6gu_I0gC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare: Records and Images]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Actors/HYtlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Actors]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_the_Man/BVdlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare the man]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Henry_V/zXllAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Henry V: A Guide to the Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespearean_Contingencies/Cw1NAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespearean Contingencies]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Drama/E60kAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Drama 1990]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Language_Discourse_Sign/uH4oAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Language, Discourse, Sign]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Mock_Kings_in_Medieval_Society_and_Renai/T98KAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Mock kings in medieval society and Renaissance drama]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Invention_of_the_Human/ojHirImrtYoC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare: Invention of the Human]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare/wn5lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Persons_in_Groups/rQ24AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Persons in Groups]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/All_Semblative_a_Woman_s_Part/0DlaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover All Semblative a Woman's Part?]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Crossing_the_Mirror/qRZNAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Crossing the Mirror]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/De_Vere_is_Shakespeare/dKJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover De Vere is Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Lambarde_Elizabethan_Antiquary_1/x1RnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Lambarde, Elizabethan Antiquary, 1536-1601]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Power_of_Forms_in_the_English_Renais/cPtZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ravishment_and_Rememberance/G31LAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ravishment and Rememberance]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_His_Theatre/8A5ZQq3uOVQC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and His Theatre]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Critical_Hermeneutics_and_Shakespeare_s/O10gAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Critical Hermeneutics and Shakespeare's History Plays]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Christian_England/K-WfAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Christian England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Religious_Background/xDSaAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Religious Background]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shylock/N4RlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shylock]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Legacy/MM5XAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare Legacy]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Renaissance_Genres/0uFZAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Renaissance Genres]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Cannibals_Witches_and_Divorce/qZRpAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Cannibals, Witches, and Divorce]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Problem_of_Religious_Knowledge/C29LAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Problem of Religious Knowledge]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Essex_and_the_Great_Revolt_of_1381/J8RzAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Essex and the Great Revolt of 1381]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Transactions_of_the_London_and_Middlesex/4dtJAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover TLMAS]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Politics_and_the_State/Mn9lAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare, Politics and the State]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Allegories_of_Power_in_the_England_of_El/LIYgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Allegories of Power in the England of Elizabeth]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare/rIVlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Women_s_Matters/PDRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Women's Matters]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Weak_King_Dilemma_in_the_Shakespeare/0bJlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Weak King Dilemma in the Shakespearean History Play]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Book_Known_as_Q/S2tlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Book Known as Q]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Fields_of_Vision/OD0eAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Fields of Vision]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Ungodly_Delights/RKgcAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Ungodly Delights]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespeare_Handbook/rLRlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespeare HandboOK]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Humanities/y5FZAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Humanities]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II_by_William_Shakespeare/Bb3yAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II by William Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/King_Richard_II/50NnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover King Richard II]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Murder_Under_Trust_Or_The_Topical_Macbet/0oNlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Murder under trust]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shakespearean_Kings/tHBlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Shakespearean Kings]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/America_the_Mabr_e_y_Experience/mRQ3AAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover America, the Mabr(e)y Experience: Resistance, Revolution &amp; Civil War]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Richard_II/ZDEkAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Richard II: An Annotated Bibliography, Volume 2]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Batsford_Companion_to_Medieval_Engla/ev78b9EJQy0C?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Batsford Companion to Medieval England]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_s_Unruly_Women/FKFlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare's Unruly Women]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Others/iFEgAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Others]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Kings_and_Chroniclers/L1wpAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Kings and Chroniclers]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_Kingdom_for_a_Stage/UzxlAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover A Kingdom for a Stage]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_House_of_Commons/Ezz4OZuYVFYC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1558-1603 (3 v.)]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_Soul_of_the_Age/nMYCAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover shakespeare, Soul of the Age]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/After_Poststructuralism/TOaEAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0&amp;bsq=%22I%20am%20Richard%20II,%20know%20ye%20not%20that?%22 After Poststructuralism: Interdisciplinarity and Literary Theory]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Unschooled_Mind/C7WnYtt219IC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover The Unschooled Mind]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/hHZnAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Eliz I]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Dramas_of_Christian_Time/mnIqAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Dramas of Christian Time]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Elizabeth_I/XjQmAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/John_Dryden/9Q1aAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;bsq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;dq=%22I+am+Richard+II,+know+ye+not+that%3F%22&amp;printsec=frontcover John Dryden]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_Early_Modern_Political_T/DUwhAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA259&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and Early Modern Political Thought]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_English_History_Play_in_the_age_of_S/5TT-AQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA158&amp;printsec=frontcover The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Shakespeare_and_the_Political/rEcREQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PA215&amp;printsec=frontcover Shakespeare and the Political]
* [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/William_Shakespeare_Subject_of_the_Crown/a7G6DAAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;pg=PT18&amp;printsec=frontcover William Shakespeare - Subject of the Crown?]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;client=firefox-b-d&amp;hs=4AQ&amp;sca_esv=6d4ade7bd26771c9&amp;udm=36&amp;biw=2510&amp;bih=1307&amp;tbs=cdr%3A1%2Ccd_min%3A2000%2Ccd_max%3A2099&amp;sxsrf=ANbL-n6I6Pkwl7mmdHK6N1xPQXLbGBIOSg%3A1776853062010&amp;ei=RqDoaZUvztiFsg_I5bToDw&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiV6tC8nYGUAxVObEEAHcgyDf0Q4dUDCBM&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=%22shakespeare%22+%2B+%22political+propaganda%22&amp;gs_lp=EhBnd3Mtd2l6LW1vZGVsZXNzIiYic2hha2VzcGVhcmUiICsgInBvbGl0aWNhbCBwcm9wYWdhbmRhIjIIECEYoAEYwwRInQlQxgZYuwdwAXgAkAEAmAF_oAHPAaoBAzEuMbgBA8gBAPgBAZgCAqACVsICCxAAGIAEGKIEGLADmAMAiAYBkAYCkgcBMqAHowOyBwExuAdTwgcDMC4yyAcEgAgB&amp;sclient=gws-wiz-modeless The Nazi Appropriation of Shakespeare: Cultural Politics in]
{{refend}}</text>
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  </page>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Review changes to Special:AbuseFilter/4 */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="44213" sha1="6snhn1imnz32n1p299a63gg3vk6i3vw" xml:space="preserve">{{Archive|Wikiversity:Request custodian action}}

== Sidewide count.js ==

i would like something like: [[Template:User contrib count/count.js]]. i created [[Template:User contrib count]] and a user/common.js. {{User contrib count}}.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; so a &quot;count.js&quot; would complete it. See [[User:Harold Foppele/common.js]].
If an Administrator could help please. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:22, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

== need to add my profile ==

im trying to add new profile content  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:03, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

:You can edit it now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:05, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::where can create a new one [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::i have created and its in sandbox. i would like to know when it will be approved  [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 19:38, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::::Please don’t create [[wv:spam|spam]] pages as it will be deleted. Please also read [[WV:Scope]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 04:01, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Im trying to add new profile while add content its shows not alowed ==

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Exceeded New Page Limit

This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link [[User:PAGURUMURTHY|PAGURUMURTHY]] ([[User talk:PAGURUMURTHY|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PAGURUMURTHY|contribs]]) 18:51, 4 February 2026 (UTC)

== New User: cannot create talk page ==

Hi, I am a new user of Wikiversity and I wanted to create a talk page for the article [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]]. As a new user, I was barred from performing this action. The text that I wanted to add to the talk page is:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I have doubts as to to the reliability of this essay. Take for rexample the sentence:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Due to its efficiency, AI has saved 380,000-403,000 lives per year in European healthcare as reported in a recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report&lt;ref&gt;Dantas, C., Mackiewicz, K., Tageo, V., Jacucci, G., Guardado, D., Ortet, S., Varlamis, I., Maniadakis, M., De Lera, E., Quintas, J., Kocsis, O., &amp; Vassiliou, C. (2021). Benefits and hurdles of AI in the workplace – what comes next? ''International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 10'', 9-17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993615_Benefits_and_Hurdles_of_AI_In_The_Workplace_-What_Comes_Next&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Reading the reference (freely available on ResearchGate), one notes:

# that the reference is from 2021 (predating the widespread use of LLMs such as ChatGPT and the associated 'AI' boom), and
# that the reference factually contradicts this essay.

Quoting from the reference:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
There are enormous benefits of applying AI-based solutions to monitor workers’ health and prevent accidents or, currently, COVID-19 infections, and those benefits are reported with enormous potential. According to the recent Deloitte and MedTech Europe report [11], implementing AI in European healthcare systems could save up 380,000 to 403,000 lives annually or €170.9 to 212.4 billion per year.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Not that the reference says ''could save'', not ''saves'' as in the essay.

This calls into question the reliability of the essay.

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Could an administrator make this addition for me? Thank you! 
{{reflist}}
[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 06:53, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Æolus|Æolus]] I have added it for you, you can change the header and sign it now. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 08:05, 5 February 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you! [[User:Æolus|Æolus]] ([[User talk:Æolus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Æolus|contribs]]) 12:43, 5 February 2026 (UTC)

== Disallowed to add a page on a course ==

I'm trying to populate a newly created course on Wikiversity, but it blocks me from creating more pages with &quot;New User Exceeded New Page Limit&quot;. Could this be lifted please? [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 13:21, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

:Sorry! Never mind. I was trying to create a new article instead of a new page. All good now. [[User:Berkeleywho|Berkeleywho]] ([[User talk:Berkeleywho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Berkeleywho|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 February 2026 (UTC)

== Harold Foppele adding LLM-generated nonsense and personal fiction ==

I became aware of [[User:Harold Foppele]]'s editing after I deleted some of his uploads on Commons. He appears to be adding a large amount of text and images that are some combination of personal fiction and LLM-generated nonsense. This includes:
*[[Quantum Ultra fast lasers#Future thought experiment|Personal speculative fiction]] in an otherwise &quot;nonfiction&quot; article
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Schematic).jpg|diagrams]] and [[:File:Rontosecond pulse laser (Futuristic).jpg|renders]] for nonexistent lab equipment, with fake source (on Commons, he indicated these files as having been created by him using an LLM)
*Uploading nonsense LLM-created images of equations with obvious artifacts. These images, such as [[:File:Redfield equation (non-Markovian).png]] and [[:File:Lindblad equation (Markovian).png]], don't even match the text he puts them with.
Much of his writing is also of extremely poor quality, to the point where it's not clear whether it's written by him or an LLM. I'm not an active editor on this project, so I'm not as familiar with the standards here, but I believe this is worth custodian attention. [[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] ([[User talk:Pi.1415926535|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi.1415926535|contribs]]) 03:06, 23 February 2026 (UTC)

:Fake source ''and'' contradictory copyright info, claiming both public domain and CC license. Moreover, if they are indeed nearly-direct LLM output, depending on jurisdiction they may not even be eligible for copyright.
:I've put speedy deletion marks for the equations, because they're obviously not coherent mathematical equations (the parentheses don't match, the symbols merge into each other the way text in image models often do, etc) [[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]] ([[User talk:Sesquilinear|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sesquilinear|contribs]]) 21:50, 7 March 2026 (UTC)

== Repeated removal of RFD notices by Harold Foppele ==

{{User|Harold Foppele }}

This editor is appearing in multiple noticeboards for behaviour which is contentious. Ther latest adventure is the repeated removal of tye RFD notice at [[Quantum/Henry C. Kapteyn]]. You will see from their contributions record the number of times. I have warned Tham on their user tag page that this is tantaomunt to volunteering to be blocked here. They have a track record of achieving blocks on enWiki and Commons already.

They have all the appearance of shooting not to understand when given direct information about their behaviour, whichever project they are editing, and are fast becoming a time sink. Their behaviour across multiple WMF sites may well lead to a Global Lock, but I do not believe they have quite reached the threshold for that.

I believe that what is required is a preventative block to seek to ensure thatchy understand the seriousness of their behaviour, and the need to be collegial. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 23:03, 4 March 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:45, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Blocks for sockpuppet ==

Please block [[User:Harold Foppele]] and [[User:Johnwilliamsiii]] for sockpuppetry based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/Harold_Foppele en wiki] CU and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1177465640 commons] CU investigations. The user has also violated copyright, see the above discussion. A block is necessary to prevent further abuse. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:30, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

:&lt;small&gt;@[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]]&lt;/small&gt; [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:31, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:44, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
:CC. @[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]], @[[User:Sesquilinear|Sesquilinear]], @[[User:Pi.1415926535|Pi.1415926535]] [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 11:33, 8 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you for the ping. I concur based on [[w:en:WP:DUCK|behaviour]]. CUs appear divided. 🇵🇸&amp;zwj;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User:Timtrent|Timtrent]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;nbsp;[[User talk:Timtrent|talk to me]]&amp;nbsp;🇺🇦&amp;zwj;🇵🇸 11:41, 8 March 2026 (UTC)

== Problem when trying to start a discussion with authors of the Plurilingual education portal ==

The authors I wanted to discuss with are called &quot;Project PEP&quot; and my name is Franch Chandler. How can I be allowed to do so ? [[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] ([[User talk:French Chandler|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/French Chandler|contribs]]) 18:25, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:French Chandler|French Chandler]] place your qestion [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Projet_PEP&amp;action=edit into the dialog box] on this link and hit Publish page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:22, 16 March 2026 (UTC)

== Please publish my post ==

My post is about &quot;Every child grows and develops at their own pace, but some may experience challenges that affect their ability to perform everyday tasks. These challenges can include difficulties with fine motor skills, sensory processing, handwriting, feeding, and self-regulation. When these issues are not addressed early, they can impact a child’s confidence, academic performance, and independence.

With the rise of digital healthcare services, '''online physical therapy''' has emerged as a powerful and accessible solution for parents seeking support for their children. This modern approach provides structured, personalized therapy programs that can be accessed from the comfort of home, making it easier for families to ensure consistent care.&quot; [[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] ([[User talk:Skyabovetherapy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Skyabovetherapy|contribs]]) 12:28, 28 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Skyabovetherapy|Skyabovetherapy]] Well, you can publish it yourself, Wikiversity is a free environement, where everybody can create educational resources. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 14:11, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
::They actually triggered some abuse filters. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:24, 29 March 2026 (UTC)
:I looked at your attempts to add this text and I see a link to one website repeated many times, which reminds me of the misuse of Wikiversity for self-promotion or to increase the importance of the website. It is necessary to remind you here that Wikiversity is not a place for promotion, but a place for education. So if you want to educate, it will not be a problem to create the page without external links with a clearly defined procedure for how people should use it and what to expect from it. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:07, 1 April 2026 (UTC)

== New user limit ==

Hi, I am creating an AIPA Method learning resource page. 

I am the author of the linked research, and I hit the “new user limit” and “new page with external link” filters while publishing. 

Here is the link to the page in creation: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=AIPA_Method&amp;veaction=edit] 

Thank you for your help. 

Best regards, 

Senad Dizdarević [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:19, 30 March 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] I should admit I dont know, what is &quot;new user limit&quot;, but if filter blocks your page because of certain external link, you may force to save anyway and sometimes it works. It should not work, when the website is blacklisted. As of now, I am not seeing you to save page in main namespace, so try to save it without external links first. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:30, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you, you are very kind. 
::I will wait a day, and try again (without links, too). 
::Today, I already created About Me info page, and maybe that is enough for the filters for one day.  [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 07:53, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:::Well, I have analyzed your contribution to Wikiversity and I should point out here, that this project is not a place for advertising, so there is no way of promoting your books and authority this way. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:56, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Hi, my About Me page is just an info page with the neutral as possible presentation of my work. 
::::There is a big difference between informing and advertising. Informing is neutrally stating that something exists and requiring no action, while advertising is a special communication form with intent to cause certain action from readers. For example, click here, click there, order this, buy that. 
::::There is no such intention, form, or terms on my info page. Just neutral information. I don't hide and I am not ashamed that I am write and author, and that is a part of the usual bio, including works. I checked your user page: &quot;I graduated from the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague and studied information science at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University.&quot; I think that if you had written a book on Life Science, you would have mentioned that as well.
::::Most of the Info page is about my research and AIPA Method which is a valid contribution to psychology, consciousness studies, identity theory, and personality development. Actually, my paper '''AIPA Method: A Cognitive-Phenomenological Model for Identity Reconstruction and Stabilization in Pure Awareness''' is now in the peer review procedure at Journal of Consciousness Studies. 
::::Here is a part from the Wikiversity AIPA Method page in creation (waiting for the end of the time limit for new users):    [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:47, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::For the unknown reasons, the form didn't publish my second part of the message: 
:::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
:::::Best Regards, 
:::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)
::::::And the third try: 
:::::: == Introduction ==
::::::The AIPA Method addresses a gap in contemporary personal development and consciousness science: most evidence‑based approaches (CBT, MBSR, MBCT, standard meditation) operate at the level of mental content—reframing thoughts, observing them, or reducing their impact—rather than at the level of identity structure. In contrast, AIPA targets the structural relationship between the self and the mind, aiming at durable identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness rather than symptom management.
::::::The central research question of the primary AIPA preprint is whether a structured, sequentially staged method can produce permanent identity reconstruction rooted in Pure Awareness, and how such a method compares to established approaches in scope, mechanism, and outcome.
:::::: == Theoretical foundations ==
::::::The AIPA framework is grounded in the cognitive‑phenomenological tradition (e.g., McAdams, Varela, Metzinger, Erikson), contemporary consciousness science on minimal phenomenal experience, and qualitative methods advocacy in psychology. It builds directly on:
::::::* Empirical work on pure awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience (MPE), especially Gamma &amp; Metzinger’s large‑scale study of content‑reduced awareness states.
::::::* Metzinger’s proposal of minimal phenomenal experience as an entry point for a minimal unifying model of consciousness.
::::::* Narrative identity and partial‑self models within personality and identity theory.
::::::Within this backdrop, AIPA proposes Pure Awareness as a distinct, operationally specified state that can become a structural ground of identity rather than a transient meditative experience.
:::::: == Experiential empiricism ==
::::::The empirical foundation of the AIPA Method is explicitly first‑person and experiential, combining:
::::::* A 22‑year longitudinal autoethnographic self‑study (2003–2025) documenting partial personality episodes, protocol use, and outcomes.
::::::* A 13‑year prospective verification period with zero self‑reported recurrence of targeted harmful behaviors after a dated stabilization point (1 January 2006).
::::::* A high‑ecological‑validity “stress test” during acute bereavement, used to examine whether non‑reactive awareness remains stable under maximal provocation.
::::::* Two independent practitioner cases (an Amazon‑verified report and a structured questionnaire case) providing preliminary convergent signals across cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and identity dimensions.
::::::All central constructs (Pure Awareness, partial personalities, the Switch, identity stabilization) are operationalized with explicit phenomenological and behavioral criteria intended to enable replication and future third‑person measurement.
::::::I believe this is a valid contribution to Wikiversity. 
::::::Best regards, 
::::::Senad [[User:Senad Dizdarević|Senad Dizdarević]] ([[User talk:Senad Dizdarević|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Senad Dizdarević|contribs]]) 06:54, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Unable to publish pages  ==

Whenever I try to publish a page with linked sources it gets flagged and says I'm a new user attempting to publish content with outside links. Those outside links are my sources. [[User:Soboyed|Soboyed]] ([[User talk:Soboyed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Soboyed|contribs]]) 04:52, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:This restriction is automatically lifted after you have edited for a certain time (I don't recall that time off-hand, but it is not long). This is designed to stop spam. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:53, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Showing error to publish a Post ==

My  action was constructive, not destructive, please allow to publish it. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|&amp;#126;2026-20906-18]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-20906-18|talk]]) 08:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)

:Maybe you got caught in a filter. Consider [[Special:CreateAccount|creating an account]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:06, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Your edits, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:AbuseLog&amp;wpSearchUser=%7E2026-20906-18 these ones], seems to have tripped a filter when you tried to create a page on [[Create]] which external links. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 23:58, 4 April 2026 (UTC)
:Have you read my [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2802219 previous reply] to you @[[User:~2026-20906-18|~2026-20906-18]]? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Abuse filters which should be deleted ==

Hi, there are some abuse filters which should probably be deleted.
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023)
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019)
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive)
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:51, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:Why do these need to be deleted rather than inactivated? Do inactive abuse filters cause a server strain? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:39, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:: Deleted filters do not cause strain to the servers. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:28, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:These sounds like sensible suggestions but, yes, would inactivation perhaps make more sense than deletion for at least some  filters? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:35, 5 April 2026 (UTC)
:I would keep them @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]. Alternatively, I would turn off the ones that haven't caught anything for a long time, but I would leave them enabled in case they need to be turned on or improved. If someone has already written the code and we don't have hundreds of free man-hours of programmers on Wikiversity, the server load seems secondary to me, and is negligible compared to other things. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:11, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I know how to write abuse filter code and regex, but I would recommend disabling filters that have never caught anything in a long time ''and'' those who made lots of false positives. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:09, 6 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Of course @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]], there are people here today who are capable of changing the code. But the question is what it will be like in a few years, the question is what will happen if those two are busy for a long time, etc. That's why I would leave it so that those who don't know much about code can be inspired by it and will need to do something with it someday - plus, more code for different types of filtering is actually great educational material on how those filters work. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:41, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

Here's the updated list of abuse filters under review with actions I've taken (several disabled, one basic code improvement, and some actions changed) - none have been deleted so they can all be edited and reactivayed - please suggest any further changes:
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/1]] (not needed anymore) - One time account spam bot - 4 hits over 10 years ago - Disabled in 2024 - May be useful in future
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/2]] (no hits since 2018) - Userspace spamming - 778 hits; none since 2018 likely due to global filters - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] (not needed since there are global filters that disallow this specific type of spam filter 3 would have catched) - Specific user page spam - 1,101 hits most recent 7 March 2026 - Still active - Kept enabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]] (looking at the logs, there are too many false positives) - Questionable Language (profanity) - 6,055 hits including very recently - However it was logging hits without taking any actions - Edited to reduce likelihood of false positives by only applying filter to users with low (&lt; 20) edit count and applied weak actions to tag and warn but not prevent publishing the content
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/5]] (no hits since 2023) - Blocked Solicitation Links - 95 hits; none since 2023 - blocks specific historical spam sites - Non-active - Now disabled
* Abuse filters 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (these filters are not needed anymore) - Not reviewed - They are currently disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/17]] (no hits since 2022) - Fundamental Physics Edits - 347 hits; none since 2022 - Non-active and very specific for a historical issue - Now disabled 
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/19]] (no hits since 2019) - Page Creation - 20 hits; none since 2019 - Retained for historical reference and possible future updates - Now disabled
* [[Special:AbuseFilter/21]] (false positives, vandal currently inactive) - Globally Banned Editor (renamed to Low-edit Spam Monitor) - 2,829 hits including very recent - Only applies to users with less than 5 edits and takes no actions / monitoring only - Reviewing the details of the hits I don't see many false positives and have strengthened its actions to add a tag and warning

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:57, 9 April 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Please block ~2026-20985-80/~2026-21079-90/~2026-21223-88. Reason: Vandalism. [[User:Àncilu|Àncilu]] ([[User talk:Àncilu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Àncilu|contribs]]) 23:24, 5 April 2026 (UTC)

:All edits should be deleted and the first is blocked by Atcovi. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:33, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

== Antispam - Filter 12 ==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Thanks for contacting me with a suggested [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filter]] for the coupon spam we've been getting. A very much appreciated time saver. Per your suggestion, abuse filter 12 has been reactivated with your updated regex. It should tag and prevent page creation actions for coupon promo etc. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:33, 15 April 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Please do the following to filter 12:
:# Enable the block action (temporary for unregistered users, indefinite for registered users)
:# Disable both the disallow and tag actions, since that filter will be set to block
: Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:42, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
::Excellent. Done:
::* Block duration for non-registered users = 1 week
::* Block duration for registered users = indefinite
::* Disallow and tagging disabled
::Thankyou. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:24, 9 May 2026 (UTC)

== Urgent! error message This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed ==

While submitting the post this error was coming &quot;This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link&quot; How to resolve it?

Here is the content:

{{note|marketing material removed}}

[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
: That's because Wikiversity doesn't accept advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::So this is fine
::'''Online Internship and Digital Learning for Students'''
::Online learning has become an important part of modern education. With the help of the internet and digital tools, students can now study, practice, and gain experience without being physically present in a classroom. One key part of this system is the online internship, which helps students learn real-world skills along with their studies.
::An online internship allows students to work on tasks and projects through digital platforms. This makes learning more practical and useful, especially for those who want to understand how real work environments function.
::'''Background'''
::The concept of online learning developed from distance education, where students learned from remote locations. Over time, with the growth of digital technology, learning has become more interactive and flexible.
::The introduction of the online internship has added another important layer to digital education. It combines theoretical learning with practical experience, helping students prepare for future careers.
::During global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, online education and online internship programs became essential. They helped students continue learning and gaining experience despite restrictions on physical movement.
::'''Importance of Online Internship'''
::An online internship plays an important role in student development. It helps bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills.
::'''Some key points include:'''
::Students understand how real work is done
::They develop basic professional skills
::It supports career readiness
::It allows learning without location limits
::By participating in an online internship, students can improve their confidence and gain early exposure to different fields.
::'''Features of Online Internship-Based Learning'''
::Modern education platforms often include online internship opportunities as part of their learning system. These usually offer:
::Flexible schedules for students
::Access to learning from home
::Beginner-friendly tasks and projects
::A combination of theory and practice
::Such features make online internship programs suitable for a wide range of learners, including beginners.
::'''Learning Tasks'''
::Explore how online internship programs support student learning in digital environments.
::Identify how students can gain practical experience through an online internship
::Analyze the role of flexible learning in improving student engagement
::Understand how online education and internships work together
::'''References'''
::[https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/E-Learning_Hanaaya-Navaneeth.pdf The Past, Present and Future of E-Learning: Hanaaya Varyani and Navaneeth M S]
::[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9788102 Current Trends and Future Perspectives of e-Learning in India]
::'''See Also'''
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/internship Online Internship]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/ Online Courses]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/online_courses/kids-learning Kids Learning]
::[https://easyshiksha.com/career_helper/ Career Guidance] [[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] ([[User talk:EasyshikshaMarketing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EasyshikshaMarketing|contribs]]) 05:27, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:EasyshikshaMarketing|EasyshikshaMarketing]] Wikiversity is a resource for education, or a space for education. However, your intention to link to another website is obvious, and such content does not belong here, as it contradicts the purpose of Wikiversity. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 11:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)

==AI-generated images==
Seeking your advice.

Myself and students use some AI-generated images in the [[Motivation and emotion]] project.

[[User:Dronebogus]] has been removing some of these images from Wikiversity pages and nominating them for deletion at Commons. As a result, some have been deleted and some have been kept.

Dronebogus has made some useful edits and image suggestions for [[Motivation and emotion]] which I've appreciated and  incorporated. However, there are other edits to remove an AI image by Dronebogus that I've reverted where I think the image is more educational than no image or an alternative image suggested by Dronebogus.

There are a couple of pages where Dronebogus has reverted my reversion, so we are at risk of edit warring. We have briefly discussed and warned each other on our user talk pages, but it seems to come down to a difference in perception about the educational usefulness of the AI images.

So, I'm asking here for others to please review the recent edit histories for these pages:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Stockholm syndrome emotion]]

and let us know what you think about the AI image suitability vs. using no image or alternative images suggested by Dronebogus.

Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:45, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I think Jtneill needs to try harder to find non-AI alternatives both on Commons and the web. I’m not reiterating the well known problems with generative AI— you can read about those on Wikipedia and the broader Internet. Needless to say it’s kind of just inherently toxic. If you use it, it should be the last resort of last resorts. Just my stance, which I consider perfectly valid and reasonable. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 04:10, 27 April 2026 (UTC)

== Request for Page Creation Approval - Research on Dr. Ian Stevenson ==


'''Hello Administrators,'''

I am a digital archivist and researcher attempting to create an educational page regarding Dr. Ian Stevenson's scientific work, specifically titled &quot;Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect&quot; and its official Vietnamese edition.

My edits are purely constructive, aimed at integrating local research context with global structured data (including '''Wikidata Q139548587'''). The automated filter is currently preventing publication due to &quot;new user external link limits.&quot;

I have ensured that all citations, references, and images (sourced from Wikimedia Commons) are strictly academic and non-promotional. Could you please review my contributions and consider whitelisting my account or approving this specific page creation?

Thank you for your assistance in preserving this research '''legacy''' within the open knowledge ecosystem.

'''Best regards,''' [[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] ([[User talk:Ian Stevenson777|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ian Stevenson777|contribs]]) 07:26, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
: The page title should probably be in English, as this is English Wikiversity. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:19, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Ian Stevenson777|Ian Stevenson777]] I looked at the text and it seems to me that it is informative, but the user cannot learn anything from it because they would have to buy the book. In this regard, it seems to me that it is enough [[:w:Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect|to have that article on Wikipedia]] and there is no need to duplicate it here on Wikiversity. If you are particularly interested with its Vietnamese translation, I would focus on Vietnamese Wikipedia, but it seems to me, that the article there [https://vi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C6%A1i_lu%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%93i_v%C3%A0_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_giao_nhau&amp;oldid=75029095 have some problems at the moment]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:51, 5 May 2026 (UTC)
:This request is AI-generated and was made by a lock evading LTA. Please ignore it. [[User:NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh|NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh]] ([[User talk:NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh|contribs]]) 23:58, 13 May 2026 (UTC)

== Call for custodians and bureaucrats ==
&lt;div class=&quot;cd-moveMark&quot;&gt;''Moved to [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians#Call for custodians and bureaucrats]].  [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:46, 12 May 2026 (UTC)''&lt;/div&gt;

== Interface administrator flag request ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] I am requesting IA flag to delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]]. It was requested for deletion by [[User:Sophivorus|a trusted user]] and I think it can be deleted. Once I delete it, I will notify you and you can remove the flag. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:24, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Can you enable two-factor authentication? 
:Policy: [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 10 May 2026 (UTC)
::Done @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:20, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
:::You are an interface administrator for 24 hours. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:57, 11 May 2026 (UTC)
::::Thx @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I have just deleted the page. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:59, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== Block request ==

Hi. Please block @[[User:Skibidi Titan 5.0|Skibidi Titan 5.0]]. Reason : Vandalism.

Thanks, [[User:Locpac|Locpac]] ([[User talk:Locpac|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Locpac|contribs]]) 15:10, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

:Thankyou. Done. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 15:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-28496-53 ==

Please block [[Special:Contribs/~2026-28496-53]], vandalism. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|トーク]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|投稿記録]]) 17:02, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} Thank you! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:14, 11 May 2026 (UTC)

== ~2026-28792-52 ==

Please block [[Special:Contribs/~2026-28792-52]], vandalism. Appears to be same user as above. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|トーク]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|投稿記録]]) 17:38, 12 May 2026 (UTC)
: Blocked locally by Barras. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:46, 12 May 2026 (UTC)

== New User Exceeded New Page Limit  ==

Hello, my action of creating a Portal for Banjo learning (Portal:Banjo) was denied as I am a user whose had my account for a while but not written before today. My actions are constructive, but if you would rather me wait and let the system work as it intends to then that's okay too. 
--[[User:Kirby - Electrotechnics|Kirby - Electrotechnics]] ([[User talk:Kirby - Electrotechnics|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kirby - Electrotechnics|contribs]]) 01:13, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

:That is standard and the rate limit will fall off as you stay and edit; it has some pretty easy barriers to cross. I can create a blank [[Portal:Banjo]] if you want, but to be clear, portal pages are usually much broader topics that can help orient you to specific pages. Do you think there will be that many pages about the topic of banjo playing? If not, then you can just continue editing [[Banjo]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 03:36, 17 May 2026 (UTC)

== Disable [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] ==

Please disable [[Special:AbuseFilter/3]] because it is redundant with [[m:Special:AbuseFilter/104|a global filter]] that disallows the same type of spam that filter 3 would have caught. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:06, 19 May 2026 (UTC)
: [[Special:AbuseFilter/history/3/diff/prev/454|Done]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:15, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

== [[One man's look at concept]] ==

Please semi-protect that page indefinitely due to vandalism from an unregistered vandal. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:52, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

:I've protected the page, but I've decided to keep it to a year just because the vandalism seemed to have started in late 2025, and the longest protection imposed was just about 3 months. If vandalism persists after the protection, I'd be more than happy to protect it indefinitely. Thanks. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:24, 19 May 2026 (UTC)

==Review changes to [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]]==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Could you review changes I made to this filter to help prevent profanity spam using obfuscated spellings? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:44, 25 May 2026 (UTC)
: I've adjusted the filter to prevent any potential false positives, see its conditions. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:10, 26 May 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>6snhn1imnz32n1p299a63gg3vk6i3vw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Inactivity policy</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>329965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2842593</id>
      <parentid>2834407</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-25T20:51:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Improve structure and clarity</comment>
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      <text bytes="1094" sha1="5fvfcdnaqex7fp3d4nyq1aj57nu8olk" xml:space="preserve">{{Proposal|WV:INACTIVITY}}
Wikiversity [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]] ([[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]) are considered inactive if, over the previous 12 months, they have made no edits or logged administrative actions.

== Process ==
# A notice is sent to the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]], listing the inactive support staff.
# Inactive support staff are notified, explaining that their rights may be removed, via:
## their talk page; {{tlx|Inactive curator}} may be used for the notification, and
## email
# If no on-wiki response is received from the inactive support staff member within a month, the administrative rights will be removed:
## Curators: A bureaucrat will remove the permission locally
## Custodians and bureaucrats: A steward will be asked to remove the permission(s) (per [[m:Steward requests/Permissions#Removal of access]]).

==See also==
* [[meta:Admin activity review/Local inactivity policies]]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration|Inactivity policy]]</text>
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      <id>2842610</id>
      <parentid>2842593</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adjusting, I also included that stewards may also remove advanced rights when removing custodian/bureaucrat rights too.</comment>
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      <text bytes="1201" sha1="l1hqj23o63915qw58267sdmpcyqgew8" xml:space="preserve">{{Proposal|WV:INACTIVITY}}
Wikiversity [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]] ([[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]) are considered inactive if, over the previous 12 months, they have made no edits or logged administrative actions.

== Process ==
# A notice is sent to the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]], listing the inactive support staff.
# Inactive support staff are notified, explaining that their rights may be removed, via their talk page (with {{tlx|Inactivity notice}}) and email.
# If no on-wiki response is received from the inactive support staff member within a month, the administrative rights will be removed:
#: Curators: A bureaucrat will remove the permission locally.
#: Custodians and bureaucrats: A steward will be asked to remove the permission(s) (per [[m:Steward requests/Permissions#Removal of access]]) along with other advanced permissions.&lt;ref&gt;Per [[m:Requests for comment/Removal of advanced rights]] on Meta.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Note ==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[meta:Admin activity review/Local inactivity policies]]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration|Inactivity policy]]</text>
      <sha1>l1hqj23o63915qw58267sdmpcyqgew8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2842611</id>
      <parentid>2842610</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-26T02:10:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
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      <comment>Grammar.</comment>
      <origin>2842611</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1200" sha1="1h03kqt1ld321pot3sp9fwsyuokivmt" xml:space="preserve">{{Proposal|WV:INACTIVITY}}
Wikiversity [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]] ([[Wikiversity:Curatorship|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], and [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]) are considered inactive if, over the previous 12 months, they have made no edits or logged administrative actions.

== Process ==
# A notice is sent to the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]], listing the inactive support staff.
# Inactive support staff are notified, explaining that their rights may be removed, via their talk page (with {{tlx|Inactivity notice}}) and email.
# If no on-wiki response is received from the inactive support staff member within a month, the administrative rights will be removed:
#: Curators: A bureaucrat will remove the permission locally.
#: Custodians and bureaucrats: A steward will be asked to remove the permission(s) (per [[m:Steward requests/Permissions#Removal of access]]) along with any other advanced rights.&lt;ref&gt;Per [[m:Requests for comment/Removal of advanced rights]] on Meta.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Note ==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[meta:Admin activity review/Local inactivity policies]]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration|Inactivity policy]]</text>
      <sha1>1h03kqt1ld321pot3sp9fwsyuokivmt</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity talk:Inactivity policy</title>
    <ns>5</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2842594</id>
      <parentid>2842466</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-25T20:55:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Approval */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2842594</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11705" sha1="n9mvfg95zrprxd0qqp706u5ofyay31q" xml:space="preserve">== Notice to colloquium ==

What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: A notice would be posted at the inactive SSM's user talk page, and a separate notification at the village pump listing the inactive support staff member(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:46, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::And the reasoning behind why whole community should know, there is inactive staff? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
::: This is standard practice as the stewards have done this similar procedure per [[m:Admin activity review]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:06, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
: I think this practice helps towards openness and transparency. For example, someone else in the community may become aware and comment about reasons why the SSM may be inactive. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:43, 21 July 2026 (UTC)
::I concur that the community should be made aware of, and given an opportunity to comment on, decisions that have an effect on our site. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:11, 27 August 2026 (UTC)

== Inactive curator template ==

Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: I'm not sure what you are trying to explain. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:47, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::I am saying that if the inactive period is changed, the {{tl|Inactive curator}} template text ''&quot;no edits or no logged actions for 2 years&quot;'' should be changed to the appropriate one. This is just a notice, not to forget to do so. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:10, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I see, thank you for explaining. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:05, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

== Communication with the SSM and deadlines ==

A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of &quot;peace&quot;.

I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now.

Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::Well, why not. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:25, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
: I think 12 months is a simple, clear, appropriate timeframe for inactivity.
: I agree that one month to reply is more reasonable than 2 weeks. It is quite common for people to be on annual leave e.g., for 4 weeks. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:47, 21 July 2026 (UTC)

== wording ==

This may sound pendantic... the prhase &quot;are considered inactive if they have made no edits and logged actions within one year.&quot; Does this mean that any edit [[w:Logical conjunction|AND]] a log action are required in one year? Does it mean that either one is required in that time frame, but not necessarily both? [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
: This means an edit and a logged action, together. I am not sure what is the point of desysopping a custodian who makes edits but otherwise does not use their permission(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:45, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
::I updated the draft language to remove any ambiguity. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:18, 16 July 2026 (UTC)

== 'crat actions ==

For reference, please see the en.wikipedia section at [[meta:Admin activity review/Local inactivity policies]].
&lt;blockquote&gt;Bureaucrats: same as the Inactive administrators rule above, plus if a bureaucrat does not participate in bureaucrat activity for over three years, their rights may also be removed.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
As someone who uses this tool, I can tell you that these rights are infrequently used. If more than 12 months passes with no need to flip a custodian bit (a not particularity rare occurrence) it would result in every 'crat here having the bit simultaneously removed. Comments? [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:25, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
: Should this be a part of this policy, a notice would be recommended explaining that some bureaucrat haven't used their bit involving bureaucrat actions, and a week should be given whether they would like to retain it or not, or otherwise resign at [[m:SRP]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:56, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
: Pinging bureaucrats [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]], [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and [[User:Koavf|Koavf]] to this discussion. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:57, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
::I am fine with CN's proposal. I think a more sensible policy would be to collapse bureaucrat and sysop rights together, so if someone hasn't changed users rights (bureaucrat) &lt;em&gt;or&lt;/em&gt; blocked a user, deleted a page, deleted a rev, imported a page, etc. (sysop rights), then that person's advanced user rights would fall under the inactivity policy. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:26, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
:::I agree with Justin. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:07, 19 July 2026 (UTC)
::: Yes, I agree with Koavf's suggestion; it resolves Mu301's concerns that Bureaucrat-specific actions may not be used in a 12 month period even though the user is active. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:50, 21 July 2026 (UTC)
:::: Koavf's suggestion adequately addresses my concerns. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:15, 27 August 2026 (UTC)
:: The current draft refers to administrative actions in a broad sense, not bureaucrat-specific actions. So, I think it is reasonable to interpret this as meaning that a bureaucrat would only be considered inactive if they haven't used any administrative action and haven't edited in 12 months. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:31, 21 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I concur with that interpretation. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:44, 7 October 2026 (UTC)

== Process ==

*For item #2 of process I would recommend requiring both talk page notification and also &quot;email this user.&quot; If someone is inactive they might not notice the talk page edit.

*For #3 we should make clear that a steward request can only be made after a community discussion has concluded. The draft policy seems to skip over the step of review by the community, how long the review should remain open, and other important due process details.
:--[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:24, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
: For number 3, the discussion should last about the same as the inactivity response timeframe, but I don't think there should be voting, as this is about inactivity. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:20, 18 July 2026 (UTC)
: In that case, go ahead. I am not against these changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 18 July 2026 (UTC)
:: Pinging @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] a second time–in case you did not see my response(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:03, 23 August 2026 (UTC)

==Vested interest==
Which admins could be affected by this proposal? I think that we should ping them to solicit input on a proposed policy before finalizing the terms. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:43, 28 August 2026 (UTC)
: User:Evolution and evolvability. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:46, 7 October 2026 (UTC)

== Approval ==
Is this policy good enough, or does it need additional changes? I await feedback here. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:52, 24 October 2026 (UTC)
: I think the proposed policy is ready (or near ready) for discussion by the Wikiversity community (e.g., by notifying via sitenotice). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:55, 25 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>n9mvfg95zrprxd0qqp706u5ofyay31q</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2842598</id>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
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      <comment>/* Approval */ reply to Jtneill ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="12101" sha1="tk1lauhivm3bd12weke9wbljyuhmvps" xml:space="preserve">== Notice to colloquium ==

What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: A notice would be posted at the inactive SSM's user talk page, and a separate notification at the village pump listing the inactive support staff member(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:46, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::And the reasoning behind why whole community should know, there is inactive staff? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
::: This is standard practice as the stewards have done this similar procedure per [[m:Admin activity review]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:06, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
: I think this practice helps towards openness and transparency. For example, someone else in the community may become aware and comment about reasons why the SSM may be inactive. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:43, 21 July 2026 (UTC)
::I concur that the community should be made aware of, and given an opportunity to comment on, decisions that have an effect on our site. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:11, 27 August 2026 (UTC)

== Inactive curator template ==

Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: I'm not sure what you are trying to explain. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:47, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::I am saying that if the inactive period is changed, the {{tl|Inactive curator}} template text ''&quot;no edits or no logged actions for 2 years&quot;'' should be changed to the appropriate one. This is just a notice, not to forget to do so. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:10, 2 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I see, thank you for explaining. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:05, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

== Communication with the SSM and deadlines ==

A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of &quot;peace&quot;.

I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now.

Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC)
: I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
::Well, why not. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:25, 25 June 2026 (UTC)
: I think 12 months is a simple, clear, appropriate timeframe for inactivity.
: I agree that one month to reply is more reasonable than 2 weeks. It is quite common for people to be on annual leave e.g., for 4 weeks. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:47, 21 July 2026 (UTC)

== wording ==

This may sound pendantic... the prhase &quot;are considered inactive if they have made no edits and logged actions within one year.&quot; Does this mean that any edit [[w:Logical conjunction|AND]] a log action are required in one year? Does it mean that either one is required in that time frame, but not necessarily both? [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
: This means an edit and a logged action, together. I am not sure what is the point of desysopping a custodian who makes edits but otherwise does not use their permission(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:45, 10 July 2026 (UTC)
::I updated the draft language to remove any ambiguity. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:18, 16 July 2026 (UTC)

== 'crat actions ==

For reference, please see the en.wikipedia section at [[meta:Admin activity review/Local inactivity policies]].
&lt;blockquote&gt;Bureaucrats: same as the Inactive administrators rule above, plus if a bureaucrat does not participate in bureaucrat activity for over three years, their rights may also be removed.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
As someone who uses this tool, I can tell you that these rights are infrequently used. If more than 12 months passes with no need to flip a custodian bit (a not particularity rare occurrence) it would result in every 'crat here having the bit simultaneously removed. Comments? [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:25, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
: Should this be a part of this policy, a notice would be recommended explaining that some bureaucrat haven't used their bit involving bureaucrat actions, and a week should be given whether they would like to retain it or not, or otherwise resign at [[m:SRP]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:56, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
: Pinging bureaucrats [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]], [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and [[User:Koavf|Koavf]] to this discussion. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:57, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
::I am fine with CN's proposal. I think a more sensible policy would be to collapse bureaucrat and sysop rights together, so if someone hasn't changed users rights (bureaucrat) &lt;em&gt;or&lt;/em&gt; blocked a user, deleted a page, deleted a rev, imported a page, etc. (sysop rights), then that person's advanced user rights would fall under the inactivity policy. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:26, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
:::I agree with Justin. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:07, 19 July 2026 (UTC)
::: Yes, I agree with Koavf's suggestion; it resolves Mu301's concerns that Bureaucrat-specific actions may not be used in a 12 month period even though the user is active. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:50, 21 July 2026 (UTC)
:::: Koavf's suggestion adequately addresses my concerns. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:15, 27 August 2026 (UTC)
:: The current draft refers to administrative actions in a broad sense, not bureaucrat-specific actions. So, I think it is reasonable to interpret this as meaning that a bureaucrat would only be considered inactive if they haven't used any administrative action and haven't edited in 12 months. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:31, 21 July 2026 (UTC)
::: I concur with that interpretation. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:44, 7 October 2026 (UTC)

== Process ==

*For item #2 of process I would recommend requiring both talk page notification and also &quot;email this user.&quot; If someone is inactive they might not notice the talk page edit.

*For #3 we should make clear that a steward request can only be made after a community discussion has concluded. The draft policy seems to skip over the step of review by the community, how long the review should remain open, and other important due process details.
:--[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 22:24, 16 July 2026 (UTC)
: For number 3, the discussion should last about the same as the inactivity response timeframe, but I don't think there should be voting, as this is about inactivity. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:20, 18 July 2026 (UTC)
: In that case, go ahead. I am not against these changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 18 July 2026 (UTC)
:: Pinging @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] a second time–in case you did not see my response(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:03, 23 August 2026 (UTC)

==Vested interest==
Which admins could be affected by this proposal? I think that we should ping them to solicit input on a proposed policy before finalizing the terms. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:43, 28 August 2026 (UTC)
: User:Evolution and evolvability. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:46, 7 October 2026 (UTC)

== Approval ==
Is this policy good enough, or does it need additional changes? I await feedback here. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:52, 24 October 2026 (UTC)
: I think the proposed policy is ready (or near ready) for discussion by the Wikiversity community (e.g., by notifying via sitenotice). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:55, 25 October 2026 (UTC)
:: Instead of the colloquium, we can hold a vote here.
:: We might also need to add a sentence per [[m:Requests for comment/Removal of advanced rights]]; if custodians are desysopped, their advanced permissions are also removed if they have any. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:46, 25 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}

[[File:Exams during Covid-19 - France (50651621763).jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Exams during Covid-19.]]

; Acar and Kaya (2024) study

Amongst 23 adolescent participants, psychological drivers, social and environmental influences, and cognitive and planning capacities were identified as primary categories influencing adolescent future orientation, alongside family, peers, educational access, and cultural norms contributing to the facilitation or hindering of future aspirations (Acar &amp; Kaya, 2024). 

'''Psychological drivers''': 'hope and optimism, fear of failure, self-identity, motivation and ambition, and emotional regulation' (Acar &amp; Kaya, 2024). 

'''Social and environmental''': 'parental support, peer influence, school environment, socioeconomic constraints, and community expectations' (Acar &amp; Kaya, 2024). 

'''Cognitive and planning capacities''': 'goal-setting skills, time perspective, decision-making ability, problem-solving skills, information-seeking behavior [''sic''], and academic self-efficacy' (Acar &amp; Kaya, 2024).     

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

When focusing on adolescents, future orientation is a vital component of their education (Johnson et al., 2014). Conversely, adolescent crime rates have been steadily decreasing (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2026), yet they remain a major concern (Hinchcliff et al., 2026; Australian Human Rights Commission [AHRC], 2024; World Health Organisation [WHO], 2026).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

'''1.''' Why is Future Orientation Important?

'''2.''' Can Future Orientation Mitigate Criminal Behaviour?  

'''3.''' Are Adolescents More Susceptible to Aversive Effects of Low Future Orientation?

'''4.''' Does Criminal Behaviour Depend Upon Future-Oriented Cognition? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

= Future Orientation =
{{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}}

==What is Future Orientation==

According to House et al. (2004), future orientation is the tendency for a person to engage in thoughts, actions, and the delaying of immediate gratification in favour of future goals. Referring to adolescents, many disciplines have ratified the importance of future-oriented behaviour in promoting positive health and development (Johnson et al., 2016). Trommsdorff (9179) proposed that future orientation included eight dimensions: extension, detail, domain, affect, motivation, control, sequence of events, and number of cognitions. 
A study by Beal (2011) revealed that Trommsdorff’s (1979) conceptualisation indicates that different influences can be indicators of future orientation and the eight dimensions. 

Findings consistently supported previous research that future orientation is an important predictor of adolescent well-being and career adaptability and revealed that ‘stronger future orientation and future-focused time perspectives are consistently associated with higher adolescent well-being, health-promoting habits (e.g., physical activity), and lower engagement in health-risk behaviours (e.g., substance use, risky sexual behaviour)’ (Kovács et al., 2026). Lindstrom Johnson et al. (2014) examines future orientation as a mediator or moderator of problem behaviour, determining that while conclusions should be interpreted cautiously, findings indicated future-oriented thinking as a mediator can be expressed as reasoning, but not the sole, for behavioural outcomes (Weems, 2025). Kovács et al. (2026) conducted a systematic review on the effects and different forms future orientation has on adolescents, focusing on future time perspective and future orientation. Findings on future time perspective revealed an interesting trend: that positivity-endorsing programmes on past behaviours, future-oriented planning, actively developing time perspective, and contextual health behaviour–focused prevention programmes greatly improve adolescent health and well-being (Kovács et al., 2026; Kuan &amp; Zhang, 2022). 

Thus, the following article will inform adolescent future orientation as a preventative measure for criminal behaviour before it occurs. It should be noted that additional factors, such as drug-oriented perspectives, can explain insignificant positive effects in future-oriented programmes. Considering the major transitional stage that is adolescence (Khurana et al., 2015), the enticing and control-eliciting nature of drugs and alcohol, and social and environmental influences on various behaviours (Barnett et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2021), potential negative effects resulting from illicit drug and alcohol use are plausible (Finan et al., 2022; Peters et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2021)  and should be recognised when discussing and assessing adolescent future-oriented thinking (Geier et al., 2013; Stoddard et al., 2018). 


==Influences on Future Orientation==
Multidisciplinary findings have indicated that a variety of influences contribute to future orientation. Much psychological research has focused on adolescents and young adults, so findings are skewed, though still extensive and reliable.

===The BioPsychoSocial Model===
In 1977, George Engel proposed an extension to the biomedical model that incorporated the psychological and social factors influencing health and wellbeing, known as the BioPsychoSocial Model (BPSM). Vögele (2015) defines BPSM as ‘a general model positing that biological, psychological (which includes thoughts, emotions, and behaviors [sic]), and social (e.g., socioeconomical, socioenvironmental, and cultural) factors, all play a significant role in health. …[and] are best understood in terms of a combination…rather than purely in biological terms.’ It is important to recognise that biological, psychological, and social influences are individual yet equally important additions to health and wellbeing with a variety of crossover (Dfarhud et al., 2014; Chu et al., 2024; Candeias et al., 2024; Kahn et al., 2024). For example, Subramanyam et al. (2024) studied the effects of neurodevelopment, epigenetics, parenting, communication skills, career-focused future orientation, and the environment on child and adolescent wellbeing, with findings indicating each component held a myriad of interplaying causes and effects. 

Regarding future orientation, multidisciplinary findings have indicated that a variety of influences contribute to future orientation. It is important to note that much of the psychological research has targeted adolescents and young adults, and therefore findings are skewed, yet extensive and reliable. 


====Psychological Influences====
McCue et al. (2019) researched and measured the effects of future orientation on adolescent decision-making. Previously, connectedness to future-self and episodic future thinking demonstrates future-oriented cognition, and while their correlation is undetermined, individual measures have shown significant effects in minimising hazardous decision-making in both adolescents and adults (Grekin et al., 2025; Goger et al., 2024; Arora, 2023). 
Future-connectedness is defined by behaviours and cognition involving the active imagination, verbal and physical communication, and other related engagements towards a person’s future in all forms. Disconnect from the future self has been shown to increase irrational, short-sighted, and risky behaviours deemed beneficial in the present (Hershfield, 2011). Episodic future thinking is defined as the mental stimulation experienced towards possible future occurrences, and supports future-orientation and highlights the importance of delaying rewards and countering impulsive behaviours (Gilbert &amp; Wilson, 2007; Benoit et al., 2011; Bar, 2009). This is particularly important as future-oriented thinking has historically shown its profound necessity amongst adolescents (Nurmi, 1991), and a lower predilection for impulsive and risky behaviour in favour of future rewards (Steinberg, 2004; Madden &amp; Bickel, 2012).
McCue et al. (2019) found a significant positive correlation between future-connectedness and episodic future thinking, claiming to be one of, if not the first, study to identify a beneficial relationship and independent effects within adolescents. Giollabhui et al. (2018) found that increased future-oriented behaviours and cognition contribute to reduced adolescent hopelessness. During adolescence, hopelessness is categorised by adamant negative future expectations and vulnerability (Casey et al., 2008; Lester, 2015). 
The severity of hopelessness in adolescence, and its relation to increased engagement in violent and/or high-risk behaviours, severe depression and anxiety, and unsafe sexual conduct (Becker-Weidman et al., 2009; Bolland, 2003; James et al., 2017; Giollabhui et al., 2018), indicates the importance of minimising adolescent hopelessness. Suicide has been a primary cause of death amongst adolescents for many years, skyrocketing after COVID-19 (Kim et al., 2024), and highlighting the worrisome trend. Considering the relationship between hopelessness, future-orientation, and adolescent depression and suicidal behaviours, increasing positive cognitions actively declines time-limited rates of hopelessness across confounds, including socio-economic status and stressors (Giollabhui et al., 2018; Faura-Garcia et al., 2024). 


====Biological Influences====
Biological aspects of future orientation are currently under-researched, likely due to difficulty in quantifying results. Gan et al. (2024) investigated effects of the Colony-Stimulating Factor 3 Receptor (CSF3R) polymorphism and early stress on future orientation amongst 14,675 Chinese participants. Participants self-reported personal occurrences of maltreatment throughout childhood. Results indicated the CSF3R gene, which is closely related to chronic psychological stress responses, greatly interacted with early trauma’s influence on future orientation, specifically as levels of maltreatment increased (Gan et al., 2024). Of great importance to this chapter, childhood maltreatment demonstrated higher levels of stress in comparison to other stressors. This can either deplete opportunities to grow or encourage stress-related improvement in response to triggering situations (Gan et al., 2024), particularly for those with certain genotypes of the CSF3R (Drury et al., 2010). 

Zheng et al. (2022) explored the heritability of future orientation, identifying that genetic influence and mutual enviornments significantly affected future orientation development amongst adolescents. Findings revealed a negative effect between age and genetic influence, and a positive effect between age and individual environments on future orientation, as well as no effect between male and females (Zheng et al., 2022). Conversely, Greene et al. (2004) found that historical gender roles and expectations influenced future orientation, with females maintaining interpersonal goals, whereas males had further extension of goals.  Importantly, the astronomical effects of environments on adolescent future orientation development and health and wellbeing, unrestricted from socio-cultural contexts, such as race, gender, and religion (Greene et al., 2004).  


====Social And Environmental Influences====
Social influence can be argued as the largest influence on future orientation due to the proximity of environmental situations throughout childhood and adolescence (Laursen &amp; Faur, 2022). Research has shown socioeconomic determinants positively correlated to the future orientation of adolescents (Nurmi, 1991), particularly higher parental and personal education (Borowsky et al., 2009; Nguyen et al., 2012), whereas neighbourhood poverty and racial minorities demonstrate weaker future-oriented thinking (Kerpelman et al., 2004; Guthrie et al., 2009). Johnson et al. (2016)  explored how parenting style, including acceptance and involvement, attachment security, and autonomy granting, has consistently demonstrated positive effects on adolescent future-oriented thinking. Interestingly, Kai and Tienda (1998) found that adolescent future orientation as represented through college aspirations did not rely on race as it did for other influencing factors. 

Chen and Vazsonyi (2013) conducted a multilevel study on the effects of schooling on future-oriented thought processes amongst nine thousand 9th to 12th graders. Findings showed adolescent problem behaviours negatively impacted future-oriented thinking, especially those in larger cohorts and schools with higher positivity towards future orientation (Chen &amp; Vazsonyi, 2013). Interestingly, students with a low sense of future orientation experienced opposite effects than those with problem behaviours, displaying a significant effect from positive future orientation attitudes at school (Chen &amp; Vazsonyi, 2013). Rydell and Brocki (2024) found similar effects, with problem behaviours and inattention around mid-adolescence negatively affecting future orientation. However, high levels of hyperactivity and positive social interactions and relationships had compensatory properties, improving future orientation. 

Continuing research on adolescence, Skinner et al. (2022) investigated the effects of parental authority on future influence throughout COVID-19. Parental control is known to have an influence on adolescent wellbeing and future orientation (Wang et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2026; Roman et al., 2015). For instance, psychological control is characterised by ‘intrusive and manipulative behaviors [sic] aimed at children or adolescents’ thoughts and feelings, through which adults exert power by controlling their children’s psychological world’ (Pérez et al., 2021), and can hinder adolescent development and wellbeing (Mandara &amp; Pikes, 2008; Xu and Ren, 2025), and is connected to the development of depressive symptoms (Skinner et al., 2022). Data collected from adolescents and their parents across three years from nine countries, accounting for confounding factors, demonstrated the importance of positive normative standards for future orientation through parent-child interactions, and an educated, targeted approach to overcome adverse effects of childhood (Merrick et al., 2017; Kerpelman et al. 2008), such as an ecological systems approach (Rosanbalm et al. 2020). Wang et al. (2024) reiterated these points, finding that parental control significantly influences future orientation and positively affects perceived significance of life, future orientation, and personal growth initiative. Interestingly, psychological control had the only negative effect on future orientation and no effect on perceived significance of life.

Given these findings, the social influences on future orientation are of the utmost importance and should be diligently recognised for positive effects to occur (Rydell et al., 2024; Crespo et al., 2013), particularly in adolescents and the objective to minimise bad behaviour (Chen &amp; Vazsonyi, 2011; Voisin et al., 2020) and decrease hopelessness (Giollabhui et al., 2018). It should be noted that social influences on adolescent health and wellbeing are connected to psychological wellbeing and perceived significance of life, and therefore can be argued as the component of the BPSM that takes priority, but not as most important (Long et al., 2021; Webster et al., 2021; World Health Organization [WHO], 2025).


===All Three Components===
The BPSM aims to put the ‘nature vs nurture’ debate to rest by highlighting primary considerations as equal contributors to behaviour. Within the ‘Nature’ conversation, particularly neuroscience, researchers dictate that ‘the capacity of the brain to change its connections. …must be the consequence of having molecular mechanisms that mediate those changes’. (United States Institute of Medicine [USIM]. Beauchaine et al. (2009) provided ten reasons to consider biological processes in psychological prevention and intervention in research, including biomarkers and endophenotypes in identifying priority prevention methods, how biological vulnerabilities moderate environmental experiences and differences, and interactions between environmental and neural systems sensitivity across lifespans. Similarly, Marder and Miller (2024) discuss how biological psychology is the focal point of psychophysiology, investigating the effects of biological markers in behaviour, accompanied by the influences of social trends creates the foundation of individual disposition. Eriksson et al. (2025) corroborated the multilevel consequences on behaviour and wellbeing, stating ‘It is essential to move beyond focusing solely on individual psychological and cognitive factors to an understanding of the complex processes involved in health behaviour change.’ Findings illustrated variance between health behaviours for different health identities amongst middle-aged men and women, guiding future socio-ecological interventions promoting healthier behaviours (Eriksson et al., 2025).

Regarding the BPSM within future orientation and criminal behaviour, each element attracts differing levels of authority from many sources. For example, the majority of research in future orientation revolves around environmental influences (Wittmann &amp; Sircova, 2018), compared to psychological and biological components. Conversely, criminal behaviour prioritises biological and psychological influences (Miller, 2014; Focquaert, 2019). 


===Why is this particularly important for adolescents?===
Kovács et al. (2026) detail that future orientation is “not a singular construct but a multifaceted phenomenon operationalized [sic] through cognitive, affective, and contextual lenses”. This is particularly important for adolescents, as biological, social, and psychological factors interact dynamically, with each influencing the others and shaping development (Lindstrom Johnson et al., 2014). The BPSM is particularly relevant as stronger future orientation is associated with adolescent wellbeing and healthier behaviours, including greater engagement in health-promoting activities and reduced risk-taking, although these relationships vary across contexts (Kovács et al., 2026). Future orientation may support these outcomes by strengthening adolescents’ capacity to establish meaningful goals, anticipate the consequences of their decisions, and regulate present behaviour in pursuit of longer-term outcomes (Bandura, 2001; Nurmi, 1991). However, the extent to which future-oriented thinking translates into behaviour depends on individual motivation and adolescents’ perceived opportunities, social relationships, and environmental circumstances (Lindstrom Johnson et al., 2014). Future orientation should not be considered as universally protective, as an intense focus on future outcomes may also be associated with anxiety or heightened pressure to achieve in certain contexts (Kovács et al., 2026). This indicates the importance of the BPSM in future orientation, implying that no singular factor is the sole cause of development, and interventions should aim at promoting adolescent wellbeing beyond encouraging long-term goal setting to include the development of self-regulatory skills and supportive environments that enable adolescents to pursue their aspirations (Nurmi, 1991; Lindstrom Johnson et al., 2014). 


=== Future Orientation’s Relevance to Criminal Activity ===

Relevant to criminal behaviour, higher levels of future-oriented cognition indicate further consideration of long-term consequences of offending (Kwon et al., 2025); in contrast, limited future orientation correlates with increased criminal behaviour by encouraging immediate gratification and reducing consideration of delayed consequences (Kübel et al., 2023). 

Clinkinbeard (2014) found that high future orientation and self-control predict adolescent criminal behaviour; particularly, higher future-oriented cognition mitigates negative effects of low self-control and lessens impulsivity, risky behaviour engagement, criminal cognition, and adolescent crime rates (Khetarpal et al., 2021; Squillaro &amp; Bixter, 2025; Simmons et al., 2019). 
Importantly, Walters (2019) identified a gradual decrease in criminal behaviour with maturation, associated with increased future orientation and decreased adolescent hopelessness. Similarly, Wood et al. (2017) recognised that cognitive immaturity relates to engagement in aversive behaviours, and thereby suffering future negative life effects; promoting future orientation and positive childhood effects can mitigate these negative life effects and promote sustainability (Kübel et al., 2023; Cauffman et al., 2023; Mueller et al., 2023). 

Given the findings on future orientation, it is now important to consider the role it plays in criminal behaviour, and therefore how research can facilitate future orientation to prevent, mitigate or rehabilitate criminal behaviour.


;Quiz
Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{A variety of influences contribute to future orientation:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Future-connectedness is defined by behaviours and cognition involving the engagement towards a person’s future:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Disconnect from the future self has been shown to have no aversive risks:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Hopelessness is a persistent and serious outcome of adolescence:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Future orientation is ''the'' primary indicator for engagement with criminal behaviour:
|type=&quot;(-)&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Key Points==
* Future orientation is the tendency for a person to engage in thoughts and actions in favour of future goals. 
*Future-connectedness is defined by behaviours and cognition involving engagement towards a person’s future in all forms. 
*The severity of hopelessness in adolescence, and its high relation to adverse behaviours, indicates the importance of minimising adolescent hopelessness.  
* Higher levels of future-oriented cognition indicate further consideration of long-term consequences of offending. 
* Limited future orientation correlates with increased criminal behaviour. 

=Criminal Behaviour=
Dent and Ward (2022) conceptualised criminal behaviour as ‘an action or set of actions... understood by the actor to be adaptive in relation to their functional needs, but...make it more difficult to function adaptively...to other sociocultural needs.’ Criminal behaviour can include minor crimes, such as ‘theft or traffic violations’, and major crimes, such as ‘physical abuse, sexual offense [sic], or murder’ (Prent et al., 2023), and is considered a ‘major social problem with complex causes... [and involves] a myriad of environmental, social, and psychological factors are associated with increased risk of convictions for this type of criminality’ (Prent et al., 2023; Levitt, 2012; Swaab &amp; Meynen, 2023). 

==Influences on Criminal Behaviour==
Reiterating findings from Prent et al. (2023), criminal behaviour is shaped by many complex, interconnected facets, including social, psychological, biological, and environmental factors, each with influential components such as geographical location and socio-economic status. Importantly, future orientation has shown positive effects in minimising negative behaviour across different contributing factors (Giollabhui et al., 2018).

==Psychological Influences==
In media and history, psychology has often been treated as the primary explanation for criminal acts; however, crime is not limited to a single discipline (South Australia News, 2026). While this is well established, it is often a misconception that one factor is more influential than the other. 

A longstanding theory explaining human behaviour, cognition, and reasoning is Nature v Nurture. Nurture, as a psychological construct, argues that a person’s circumstances stem from upbringing and environment rather than other factors. Hadsell (2026) stated that the ‘connection between parents and children has two pathways: biological, covering both genes and hormones, and environmental.’

==Biological Influences==
When discussing the Nature concept, it is theorised that an individual's biological makeup is the sole predictor of behaviour (Alper, 1995). Baschetti (2008) argued that genetic evidence proved Nature over Nurture. Drawing on Charles Darwin’s theories of evolution and biology, current and overwhelming research indicates that criminality is heritable, yet persistent (Baschetti, 2008; Pizzi, 2004). It should be noted that Nature can refer to the genetic contribution within mental illness. 

Rao (2007) argued that all humans have a ‘dark side that loves crime and violence... [while] we may all deny it, but the contrary is true...regardless of our age, caste, social status, region, religion or education.’ [''APA style: Direct quotes should use double quotation marks and include page numbers''] Relevant to crime rates, it can be reasoned that modern-day society is the ‘most violent culture in history in the number of crimes and...the nature of brutality.’ Ling et al. (2019) explored how psychophysiology, brain mechanisms, and genetics stimulate criminal behaviour. Particularly, disrupted prefrontal cortex-amygdala connectivity and changes in autonomic functioning damaging the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis correlate with increased criminal and anti-social tendencies (Gillespie et al.,  2018; Critchley, 2005; Brzozowski &amp; Mitchell, 2018) [''APA style: Arrange multiple citations in alphabetical order''].

Baschetti (2008) signified the importance of systematic changes acknowledging the existence of a biological influence to encourage appropriate reforms and minimise negative outcomes.

==Social influences==

The development of criminal behaviour is very important for social and environmental factors, especially in adolescence when identities and behaviour patterns are being developed. Offending behaviour usually develops through the interactions between familial dynamics, peer relationships, socioeconomic circumstances and community environments. Ayano et al. (2024) highlights interconnected risk and protective factors for youth crime and emphasise the importance of comprehending offending within the broader social context. Family conflict, inconsistent parenting and poor supervision may encourage antisocial behaviour, while supportive relationships and parental involvement can reduce the risks of offending. 

Likewise the Australian Institute of Family Studies (2003) attributes variations in adolescent antisocial behaviour and resilience to environmental influences and developmental pathways. Criminal behaviour is affected by peer relationships. As McGloin and Thomas (2019) explain, young people may adopt delinquent attitudes, learn criminal behaviours or offend for peer acceptance. Prosocial friendships, in contrast, can reinforce positive behaviours. Mowen (2020) also shows that family and peer influences are connected, as a lack of family support may increase reliance on delinquent peer networks. Wider environmental factors, such as socioeconomic disadvantage, limited educational opportunities, neighbourhood instability and social exclusion, may also increase vulnerability to offending. 

Media can influence criminal activity by shaping attitudes towards violence, normalising aggressive behaviour, and providing models for antisocial conduct, particularly among adolescents and other vulnerable individuals. Anderson et al. (2003) argue that exposure to violent television, films, video games, and music can increase aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in young people. Similarly, Huesmann and Taylor (2006) explain that repeated exposure to media violence may contribute to the development of aggressive behavioural scripts, whereby individuals learn and subsequently imitate violent responses to interpersonal conflict. However, media exposure should not be considered a direct or inevitable cause of criminal behaviour, as its effects may vary according to individual characteristics, family circumstances, and wider social environments. Savage and Yancey (2008), through their meta-analysis, examined the relationship between media violence and criminal aggression, while Savage (2004) highlighted methodological limitations in establishing whether violent media exposure directly causes serious criminal violence. These findings emphasise the importance of distinguishing aggressive tendencies from actual criminal offending. Furthermore, the expansion of digital platforms has introduced additional concerns regarding cyber-deviance, online harassment, and exposure to harmful content. Cioban et al. (2021) identify various forms of adolescent deviance and cyber-deviance, demonstrating the importance of understanding how online environments may facilitate antisocial conduct. Media may also contribute to radicalisation under certain circumstances, although the effects depend on the content encountered and the social context in which it is consumed (Wolfowicz et al., 2022). Additionally, Hamilton and Pearson (2021) examine the relationship between media use and offender recidivism, highlighting the relevance of media-related behaviours in understanding reoffending. Shah and Kaushik (2025) further explore concerns about copycat crimes in contemporary digital culture. Overall, media may contribute to criminal behaviour through imitation, social learning, and reinforcement of harmful attitudes; however, its influence should be understood alongside other individual and environmental risk factors.

==Relationship Between Criminal Behaviour and Future Orientation==

Considering all the context provided, the relationship between criminal activity and future orientation can be utilised to mitigate and prevent criminal activity in a number of cases. Due to the prevalence of future orientation within adolescents, prevention and mitigation programmes of criminal activity will be targeted towards previously offending and incarcerated adolescents alongside those who do not participate in such behaviours.  

==Preventing criminal activity with future orientation==
Khetarpal et al. (2023) investigated future orientation as a predictor of different forms of violent behaviour, finding that their association isn’t linear. Amongst 800 adolescents in high violent neighbourhood, results indicated statistically significant effects between future-oriented thinking and violent behaviour, including ‘weapon violence, bullying, sexual harassment, non-partner SV [sexual violence], and intimate partner SV, with patterns differing across types of violence.’ Those with low future-oriented thinking demonstrated significantly less likelihood of weapon violence, as consistent with prior research (Borowsky et al., 2009; Culyba et al., 2018; Stoddard et al., 2011; Khetarpal et al., 2021). Those with moderate future-oriented thinking displayed higher likelihood to engage in bullying peers, possibly linked to social status promotion and belonging (Brown et al., 1986). Interestingly, both low and high future-oriented thinking groups demonstrated engagement with perpetuating all sexual violence (Khetarpal et al., 2023; Khetarpal et al., 2021).

Clinkinbeard (2013) explored the effect of future orientation on self-control and delinquency. By recognising the relationship between self-control and delinquent behaviour, research can be designed to reduce delinquent behaviour. Data showed a regression of self-control and future orientation on delinquent behaviour, where ‘future-oriented achievement expectations conditioned the effect of self-control on delinquency such that the effects of self-control were weakened with increases in future orientation.’ This ultimately confirmed previously stated findings that programmes should emphasise future orientation to reduce criminal behaviour. 

Conversely, Squillaro &amp; Bixter (2025) focused on the opposite, researching how different factors of future orientation relate to criminal thinking and behaviour and approaches to operationalisation. Undergraduate participants were measured by of impulsivity, self-control, delay discounting, and the Future Time Perspective Scale, alongside measuring criminal thinking styles. Findings showed a negative relationship between future orientation and criminal thinking, thereby indicating that lower future-oriented thinking increases crime-oriented thinking (Squillaro &amp; Bixter, 2025; Chen et al., 2011;  Petrich et al., 2019). Additionally, self-control demonstrated the highest consistency and statistically significant relationship with criminal thinking styles and behaviour (Packer et al., 2009; Walters et al., 2016). 

==Mitigating criminal activity with future orientation==
Khetarpal et al. (2023) investigated future orientation as a predictor of different forms of violent behaviour, finding that their association isn’t linear. Amongst 800 adolescents in high violent neighbourhood, results indicated statistically significant effects between future-oriented thinking and violent behaviour, including ‘weapon violence, bullying, sexual harassment, non-partner SV [sexual violence], and intimate partner SV, with patterns differing across types of violence.’ Those with low future-oriented thinking demonstrated significantly less likelihood of weapon violence, as consistent with prior research (Borowsky et al., 2009; Culyba et al., 2018; Stoddard et al., 2011; Khetarpal et al., 2021). Those with moderate future-oriented thinking displayed higher likelihood to engage in bullying peers, possibly linked to social status promotion and belonging (Brown et al., 1986). Interestingly, both low and high future-oriented thinking groups demonstrated engagement with perpetuating all sexual violence (Khetarpal et al., 2023; Khetarpal et al., 2021).


==Protective Factors Within Future Orientation And Criminal Behaviour==
Khetarpal et al. (2021) investigate protective factors against violent behaviour by utilising future orientation. Amongst 2,346 9th to 12th grade students, positive future-oriented thinking demonstrated significant engagement in crime-oriented thinking and delinquent, illegal behaviours. Proposed programme interventions suggest youth-serving professionals adopt a routine of conducting psychosocial assessments and violence prevention (Hagan et al., 2017), and promote psychological resilience by specifying adolescent strengths (Murphey et al., 2004). Therefore, interventions that promote psychological resilience to improve future orientation (Rosanbalm et al., 2020), is an important direction in minimising criminal activity amongst adolescents (Clinkinbeard, 2013). 

==How Does Future Orientation Influence the Risk of Criminal Activity?==
Repeating previous statements, future orientation is an incredibly important skill, particularly for adolescents or those experiencing hopelessness. A lack of future-oriented cognition can exacerbate impulsive and risky behaviour and can result in engagement in criminal behaviour (Squillaro &amp; Bixter, 2025; Mueller et al., 2023). Given adolescent vulnerability to criminal behaviours (Bui &amp; Deakin, 2021) and hopelessness (Bolland, 2003; Tonkus et al., 2022), it is incredibly relevant to encourage future orientation. Reiterating how future orientation has a positive relationship in curbing adolescent criminal activity and juvenile incarceration (Walters, 2019; Simmons et al., 2019) reinforces future orientation as an imperative protective factor across life (Yang et al., 2026; Clinkinbeard, 2014). 

==Criminal behaviour and future orientation within the BioPsychSocial Model==
By addressing and understanding the biological, psychological and social factors of future orientation and criminal behaviour, research can inform prevention and mitigation programs and consider the multitude of risk factors. Monahan et al. (2009) state that lower future orientation and psychosocial maturity increase participation with crime-oriented thinking and behaviours. Considering adolescent physiological, social, and psychological development in the effects on future orientation and criminal activity, the integration of well-researched intervention programmes, particularly for those with confounding risk factors, such as race and socio-economic status, is imperative for progress (Cavanagh, 2022; Baskin-Sommers et al., 2022; Pappas &amp; Dent, 2023). This is of particular importance, as research has identified a negative association between adolescent delinquent behaviours and future orientation (Chen &amp; Vazsonyi, 2011), and positive peer relationships having a distinct effect on social belonging and in-turn delinquent behaviour (Rydell &amp; Brocki, 2024; Marotta &amp; Voisin, 2020). 


==Conclusion==

Currently, there is substantial research into the effects and relationships of future orientation and adolescent criminal activity. However, conclusive findings on the relevance of using future orientation to mitigate criminal behaviour remain limited. Given the strong positive correlations between future-oriented thinking and reduced disturbances in life quality, it would be unwise to ignore how future orientation can help prevent rising crime rates among adolescents ''and'' adults. 


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Stoddard, S. A., Zimmerman, M. A., &amp; Bauermeister, J. A. (2011). Thinking about the future as a way to succeed in the present: A longitudinal study of future orientation and violent behaviors among African American youth. _American Journal of Community Psychology, 48_(3–4), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9383-0

Subramanyam, A. A., Somaiya, M., &amp; De Sousa, A. (2024). Mental health and well-being in children and adolescents. _Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 66_(Suppl. 2), S304–S319. https://doi.org/10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry\_624\_23

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Voisin, D. R., Kim, D. H., Bassett, S. M., &amp; Marotta, P. L. (2020). Pathways linking family stress to youth delinquency and substance use: Exploring the mediating roles of self-efficacy and future orientation. _Journal of Health Psychology, 25_(2), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105318763992

Walters, G. D. (2016). Low self-control, peer rejection, reactive criminal thinking, and delinquent peer associations: Connecting the pieces of the crime puzzle. _Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 2_, 209–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-016-0028-3

Wang, R., Liu, M., Sun, Y., &amp; Li, Q. (2024). Different impacts of parental psychological and behavioral control on the cultivation of advantageous strength in Chinese rural adolescent. _Frontiers in Psychology, 15_, Article 1349386. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1349386

Webster, D., Dunne, L., &amp; Hunter, R. (2021). Association between social networks and subjective well-being in adolescents: A systematic review. _Youth &amp; Society, 53_(2), 175–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X20919589

Weems, C. F. (2025). An alternative framework for nonexperimental cross-sectional mediation studies: Associational variable analysis. _Psychological Methods_. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000774

Wittmann, M., &amp; Sircova, A. (2018). Dispositional orientation to the present and future and its role in pro-environmental behavior and sustainability. _Heliyon, 4_(10), Article e00882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00882

Wolfowicz, M., Litmanovitz, Y., Weisburd, D., &amp; Hasisi, B. (2022). What are the effects of different elements of media on radicalization outcomes? A systematic review. _Campbell Systematic Reviews, 18_(2), Article e1244. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1244

World Health Organization. (2025, September 1). _Mental health of adolescents._ https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health

Xu, T., &amp; Ren, J. (2025). Parent-child relationships, parental control, and adolescent mental health: An empirical study based on CEPS 2013–2014 survey data. _Behavioral Sciences, 15_(1), Article 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15010052

Zhang, S., Wu, S., Wu, Q., Durkin, D. W., &amp; Marsiglia, F. F. (2021). Adolescent drug use initiation and transition into other drugs: A retrospective longitudinal examination across race/ethnicity. _Addictive Behaviors, 113_, Article 106679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106679

Zheng, L., Chen, J., Li, X., &amp; Gan, Y. (2022). Inherited dreams: A twin study of future orientation and heritability among Chinese adolescents. _European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 19_(2), 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1889504


}}

===Declaration===
In accordance with Unit 7124 outlines, I have not used any Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) tools/services in the preparation of this assessment. I understand that providing false or misleading information in the GenAI Acknowledgement Statement may constitute a breach of the University of Canberra (Student Conduct) Rules 2023. 

==External links==


[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cognitive]]
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      <text bytes="67514" sha1="0f00tulvduupkowd2hdl1vdtzkc4bfp" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]].
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==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback==
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This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements.
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===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]===
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{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}
==Simple example==
See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]]
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC)
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==Detailed example==
Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments:
&lt;small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a basic chapter
# This is an insufficient chapter
# The main area(s) for potential improvement:
#* use the best psychological theory about the topic
#* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic
#* quality of written expression
#* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]]
#* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics
#* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words
#* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter
&lt;!-- Overall - Edit summaries --&gt;
#* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits
#* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits
#* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit
#* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit
&lt;!-- Overall - GenAI --&gt;
#* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged
#* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI
#* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles
#* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]].
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# Only cite sources that you consult
# All citations need to be in the References
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview – Comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --&gt;
# Engaging scenario or case study
# Reasonably engaging scenario or case study
# Basic scenario or case study
# Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section
# Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students)
# Add an engaging case study or scenario
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --&gt;
# Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario
# Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario
# Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section
# Include a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --&gt;
# The scenario uses an appropriate feature box
# Put the scenario in a feature box
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way
# Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail
# Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections.
# Clarity of written expression can be improved
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title)
## matching the top-level headings more closely
## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]]
## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions
## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed)
# Add focus questions in a feature box
# See copyedits for examples of possible improvements
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied
# Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements
# Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement
# Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement
# A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic
# Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question).
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
# In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic.
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source]
# If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research
# Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal
# Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Claims are well referenced
# In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic.
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence
# The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links
# Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion
# Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic
# Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words
# Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]].
# Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
# Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Key points --&gt;
# Key points are well summarised
# Key points are summarised in a basic way
# Summarise key points
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are addressed
# Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly
# Address the focus questions
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --&gt;
# Clear take-home message(s)
# Somewhat clear take-home message(s)
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Word count --&gt;
# Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard
## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills.
### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot; or &quot;this chapter explored&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter will explore&quot; or &quot;this chapter has explored&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia].
## Reduce excessive use of bold font
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression
## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+.
## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --&gt;
## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences.
## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences.
## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) instead of 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes.
## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
## &quot;Individuals&quot; is overused. &quot;People&quot; is usually a clearer term than &quot;individuals&quot;. Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally.
## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning
## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of &quot;20 years ago&quot;, refer to something like &quot;at the beginning of the 21st century&quot;. In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten.
## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions
## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
## Provide more descriptive headings
## Move links from headings into their first mention in text
## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section
## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed)
## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar and spelling are excellent
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback
## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas].
## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element
## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)]
## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.)
### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms.
### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader
### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards
### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Copy editing --&gt;
# Copy editing
## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY]
## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --&gt;
## Use double (not single) quotation marks &quot;to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression&quot; ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159)
## &quot;Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences&quot; ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159)
## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned
### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Add captions
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --&gt;
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation).
### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --&gt;
### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information
### Numbering needs correcting
### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned
### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table
### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]])
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --&gt;
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation)
### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
# Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)]
# Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)]
# In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
## Do not include author first name or initials
## Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra &amp; Aardvark, 2020)
## A full stop is needed after &quot;et al&quot; (i.e., &quot;et al.&quot;) because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]]
## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]]
## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point)
## Check and correct placement of full-stops
## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois
## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources
# For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both
# Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style:
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
### Include dois where available
### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access
### Provide the full titles of journals
### Remove &quot;Retrieved from &quot;
### Use alphabetical order
### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section
### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent
&lt;!-- Feedback responsiveness ---&gt;
## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
# Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
# Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
# Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
# Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
# Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es)
# No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
# No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
# The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages
# The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end
# The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]])
# No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section
## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]]
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]]
## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section
## Add more links
# [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]]
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section
## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Target an international audience
## Add more links
## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic
# [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]]
# ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
# Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads
# Thanks very much for your extensive contributions
# Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
# No logged contributions
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
gives
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem
# This is a basic chapter
# This is an insufficient chapter
# The main area(s) for potential improvement:
#* use the best psychological theory about the topic
#* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic
#* quality of written expression
#* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]]
#* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics
#* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words
#* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter
&lt;!-- Overall - Edit summaries --&gt;
#* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits
#* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits
#* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit
#* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit
&lt;!-- Overall - GenAI --&gt;
#* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged
#* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI
#* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles
#* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in  [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]].
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# Only cite sources that you consult
# All citations need to be in the References
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview – Comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --&gt;
# Engaging scenario or case study
# Reasonably engaging scenario or case study
# Basic scenario or case study
# Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section
# Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students)
# Add an engaging case study or scenario
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --&gt;
# Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario
# Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario
# Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section
# Include a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --&gt;
# The scenario uses an appropriate feature box
# Put the scenario in a feature box
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way
# Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail
# Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections.
# Clarity of written expression can be improved
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title)
## matching the top-level headings more closely
## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]]
## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions
## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed)
# Add focus questions in a feature box
# See copyedits for examples of possible improvements
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied
# Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements
# Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement
# Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement
# A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic
# Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question).
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
# Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
# In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic.
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source]
# If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research
# Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal
# Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Claims are well referenced
# In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic.
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence
# The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links
# Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion
# Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic
# Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words
# Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the  [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]].
# Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
# Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Key points --&gt;
# Key points are well summarised
# Key points are summarised in a basic way
# Summarise key points
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are addressed
# Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly
# Address the focus questions
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --&gt;
# Clear take-home message(s)
# Somewhat clear take-home message(s)
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Word count --&gt;
# Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard
## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills.
### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot; or &quot;this chapter explored&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter will explore&quot; or &quot;this chapter has explored&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia].
## Reduce excessive use of bold font
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression
## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+.
## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --&gt;
## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences.
## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences.
## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) instead of 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes.
## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
## &quot;Individuals&quot; is overused. &quot;People&quot; is usually a clearer term than &quot;individuals&quot;. Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally.
## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning
## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of &quot;20 years ago&quot;, refer to something like &quot;at the beginning of the 21st century&quot;. In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten.
## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions
## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## Use the default heading style (e.g.,  remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size)
## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
## Provide more descriptive headings
## Move links from headings into their first mention in text
## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section
## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed)
## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar and spelling are excellent
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback
## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas].
## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element
## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)]
## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.)
### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms.
### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader
### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards
### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC)

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEMF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]]
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    <title>The John Snow Prediabetes Institute</title>
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      <text bytes="6449" sha1="a8k7y6w2j1t4a06ekmixx75qsag90c8" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on evidence based prediabetes remission, early risk identification, and lifestyle health promotion. (https://w.wiki/Skm7).&lt;/small&gt;

'''&lt;small&gt;Background:&lt;/small&gt;'''

&lt;small&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with arteriosclerosis, pre-diabetes, type 2 DM, hypertension and overweight (General Research Draft). &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt; All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of pre-diabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. The aim is to get repeated prevalence studies based on data from the academic literature. One possibility is to contact the authors with request to reanalyse the data to identify the highest risk groups. Another possibility is to get the data from the schools for -seafarers, -nurses and medical students. The 16-weeks '''intervention study''' include learning by video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with Glukometer and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt;. The very challenging intervention studies include the AI-Digital lifestyle programs.&lt;ref&gt; «Digital Lifestyle Program Cuts Diabetes Risk by 46% in Prediabetics, Study of 130k+ Adults Reveals». News-Medical, 14 de abril de 2025. https://www.news-medical.net/news/20250414/Digital-lifestyle-program-cuts-diabetes-risk-by-4625-in-prediabetics-study-of-130k2b-adults-reveals.aspx.&lt;/ref&gt; Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; and the Health Promoting Schools.&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|
&lt;small&gt;Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/small&gt;

]]&lt;small&gt;'''Prevalence studies'''&lt;/small&gt;  

[[/The Maritime Health database design // |&lt;small&gt;1.1 The Maritime Health database design&lt;/small&gt;]]

&lt;small&gt;1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;'''Personal prevention''' Personal reversal of prediabetes relies on targeted lifestyle changes like eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly, and losing a modest amount of excess weight. (local Diabetes Associations)&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;'''Core Institutional Strategies'''  Health authorities and organizations implement group-based or digital programs. The workplaces are prompted to make targeted interventions, including nutrition and exercise programs, to safeguard long-term cardiometabolic health in the workforces.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;small&gt;16 weeks human caused Intervention studies: English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;
and '''AI-Powered Lifestyle Intervention''' in the Diabetes Prevention
&lt;ref&gt;Mathioudakis, Nestoras, Benjamin Lalani, Mohammed S. Abusamaan, et al. «An AI-Powered Lifestyle Intervention vs Human Coaching in the Diabetes Prevention Program: A Randomized Clinical Trial». JAMA 334, n.º 23 (2025): 2079-89. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2025.19563.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

'''&lt;small&gt;Organisation&lt;/small&gt;'''

&lt;small&gt;- [[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /|The John Snow Institute bylaws]]&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]
&lt;small&gt;- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;'''Publications'''
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

'''The John Snow Prediabetes Institute Research Network:''' 
&lt;small&gt;Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, MPH, PhD; Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado Mujica; Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Tarragona Spain,  Prof. MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Prof. Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Maritime Doctor. Erik Haarløv MD, Assens, Denmark; Dr. Maite Duque MD Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama MD; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dra.Marj Gab Huerte, MD, Filippines:&lt;/small&gt; 
&lt;small&gt;Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona and Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MD, MPH, Costa Rica; Christian Acheampong, MBA, New Jersey US; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark: Dr. Solomon Ching MD Filippines: Dr. Marcel Alcaraz MD Filippines;&lt;/small&gt; 
==References==</text>
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      <text bytes="29754" sha1="c7s9lhjsns0vrfbb0v1mpmwidmig7tm" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour&lt;br&gt;How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}

[[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]]

;Scenario

Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.”

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. 

To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023).

Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, &amp; Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, &amp; Mashek'', 2007). 

Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|}}
*     What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? &lt;br&gt;
*     How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?&lt;br&gt;
*     How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour?
*     How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are moral emotions?==
Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue.

=== Historical development ===
In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published &quot;The moral Judgement of the child&quot; which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026).

Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as &quot;emotion–cognition hybrids&quot; that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. 

Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki &amp; Stella, 2025). 

=== Basic emotions build moral ones ===
[[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]]
Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &amp;Stella, 2025)

== How moral emotions arise and motivate action ==
Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki &amp; Stellar, 2025). 

=== Prototypical features ===
Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. ''&quot;Emotions high in both disinterested elicitors and prosocial action tendencies are prototypical moral emotions.&quot;'' (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015).

=== Four families of moral emotions ===
Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that 

* '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment.
* '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust.
* '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation.
* '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion.

=== How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: emotional 
|'''Emotion type'''
|'''Emotion'''
|'''Bodily response'''
|'''Motivational  direction'''
|-
|Self-conscious
|Guilt
|Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze
|Repair harm, apologise, confess
|-
|Self-conscious
|Shame
|Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat  in face
|Withdraw, hide, conform to norms
|-
|Self-conscious
|Embarrassment
|Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion
|Appease others, restore social acceptance
|-
|Other-focused
|Empathy/Compassion
|Softened facial muscles, warm affect,  parasympathetic activation
|Help, comfort, support
|-
|Other-focused
|Moral Outrage
|Increased heart rate, clenched jaw,  sympathetic arousal
|Punish, protest, advocate
|-
|Other-focused
|Gratitude
|Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial  activation
|Reciprocate, strengthen bonds
|-
|Other-focused
|Moral Elevation
|Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture
|Emulate virtue, act altruistically
|}

=== Moral identity ===
[[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre et al.’s (2019) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience more intense and more frequent moral emotions, particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an amplifier of moral emotions by:

* increasing sensitivity to moral cues,
* strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness,
* enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness.

Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour.

=== Moral emotion development ===
Moral emotions develop through a gradual integration of children’s emerging affective capacities with increasingly sophisticated social‑cognitive skills. Early in life, infants display basic precursors of empathy, but young children often struggle to coordinate their own perspective with that of others, leading to patterns such as the “[[w:Happy_victimizing|happy victimizer]]” phenomenon, where they may feel good after wrongdoing because they do not yet fully appreciate the victim’s emotional experience (Malti &amp; Dys, 2013). As children’s [[w:Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]] and emotion understanding advance, they become better able to interpret intentions, consequences, and others’ internal states, supporting the emergence of more complex moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and compassion (Lane et al., 2010). By adolescence, these capacities enable meta‑perspective taking—reflecting on moral ideals, trust, and social expectations—which contributes to more stable anticipatory moral emotions, including guilt and pride, and a stronger integration of moral emotions with moral reasoning and identity (Malti &amp; Dys, 2013).

=== Environmental influences ===
Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) concluded that secure attachment is consistently linked to healthier moral‑emotion development, including empathy, guilt, forgiveness, and emotion regulation. Secure attachment fosters the emotional competencies necessary for prosocial behaviour, while insecure attachment increases vulnerability to maladaptive moral affect (e.g., shame, emotional withdrawal). Understanding these pathways is essential for supporting children’s emotional, relational, and academic wellbeing. 

[[w:Adverse_childhood_experiences|Adverse childhood experiences]] (ACE) undermine the development of moral-motivational systems, pushing individuals towards shame based identity, interpersonal conflict and disengagement rather than guilt based repair or prosocial action (Wojcik, K., D., 2019).

Furthermore, childhood abuse and neglect foster chronic, identity‑based shame, with dissociation partially mediating the trauma–shame link by fragmenting self‑representations and preventing integration of painful moral emotions (Santoro, G., et al., 2025) . Dissociation thereby reinforces shame‑laden self‑schemas and disrupts adaptive moral regulation, aligning with Tangney’s account of shame’s tendency to derail empathy and promote defensive avoidance rather than moral repair (Tangey, J., et al., 2007)

== Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour ==
Self conscious emotions arise from three source of self reflection (

=== Guilt ===
Guilt motivates ethical behaviour by compelling individuals to repair harm, apologize, confess, and restore relationships after causing distress or violating communal expectations. (Haidt, 2003)

Explore the following ''&quot;Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost&quot; .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1)

=== Shame ===
Shame motivates ethical behaviour by pushing individuals to withdraw, hide, and correct perceived defects in the self to avoid social condemnation and restore moral standing (Haidt, 2003). 

=== Embarrassment ===
Embarrassment motivates prosocial behaviour by signaling appeasement and recognition of minor social‑conventional violations, helping maintain smooth social interactions and group harmony (Haidt, 2003).

=== Quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour ==

=== Anger, contempt, and disgust ===
Anger, contempt and disgust all have basic and more complex (moral) forms and to explain the motivation of prosocial behaviour, distinguishing them is required. Moral anger motivates ethical behaviour by driving people to confront and correct perceived injustices, even on behalf of others, making it a prototypical moral enforcer, whereas disgust prompts avoidance of actions or individuals as degrading or violating social behaviours, mainly regarding the body (Haidt, 2003). Haidt (2003) continues highlight that (moral) contempt is the &quot;middle brother&quot; between anger and disgust, with motivating individuals holding contempt to another they deem as inferior or unworthy, reducing warmth and respect toward them and reinforcing social standards and hierarchy as they do not &quot;measure up&quot; to societal norms.

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Moral outrage|Moral outrage]] is further indicated as motivating prosocial behaviour and distinguished from anger when an individual witnesses an injustice to that harms another person, without affecting the self (Van de Vyver &amp; Abrams, 2015). Moral outrage elicits justice-orientated prosocial action. Research has shown that 

=== Awe, elevation and gratitude - ===
Discuss how positive moral emotions (Elevation and gratitude) can contribute to moral flourishing and improve patient care, (linking back to the scenario). (Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. 2026) 

[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2689844/ Witnessing excellence in action: the ‘other-praising’ emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration - PMC] 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
;Let's look back at the scenario

You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Compassion ===


== Maladaptive moral affect ==
While moral emotions regulate ethical and prosocial behaviour, it is important to recognise that distortions of these emotions can develop via adverse childhood experiences and trauma predict antisocial outcomes, with maladaptive forms of guilt and shame linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Shame, guilt, and recidivism|recidivism]]. Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) found that attachment insecurity in children was linked with poor [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|emotional regulation]] and predicted maladaptive moral affect. Avoidant attachment is associated with higher shame and lower empathy. For example, avoidant children show significantly higher shame scores, in adolescence there was less empathic concern and lower perspective taking. This aligns with broader findings that insecure attachment disrupts the development of adaptive guilt and empathy. (Costa Martins et al 2021).

Furthermore, Tangney, J.,P., et all (2007) review establishes the foundational distinction between adaptive guilt and maladaptive shame, showing that guilt is behaviour‑focused and reparative, whereas shame involves global negative self‑evaluation, withdrawal, anger, and externalisation of blame.

=== Moral disengagement ===
[[w:Moral_disengagement|Moral disengagement]] occurs as a way to justify unethical behaviour when the moral emotion appraisal process is distorted to not be applied to oneself. Research shows that individuals cognitively neutralise guilt and shame both before wrongdoing (anticipatory disengagement) and after wrongdoing (post‑hoc disengagement), using mechanisms such as minimising harm, diffusing responsibility, or dehumanising victims to protect the self from moral emotions that would otherwise motivate repair (Tillman, C.,J., et al., 2018) . Learning about the real consequences of one’s harmful actions intensifies guilt and shame, prompting further disengagement as a coping mechanism, illustrating how maladaptive moral affect can be sustained through cognitive distancing rather than resolved through reparative action.  

Developmental findings from bullying contexts further illustrate how moral emotions shape behaviour: primary‑school aggressors consistently attribute less shame and more indifference or pride to victims, reflecting entrenched disengagement and reduced empathic concern (Romera E.,M., et al., 2019). In contrast, children who experience or attribute guilt show greater moral sensitivity and prosocial tendencies, consistent with Tangney’s (2007) claim that guilt fosters empathy and constructive action .

=== Mitigating maladaptive moral affect ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Maladaptive concern
!Maladaptive development pathway
!Mitigation strategies
!Reference 
|-
|ACEs → shame/guilt proneness
|Interpersonal sensitivity → shame; interpersonal aggression → guilt
|Improve interpersonal functioning; attachment repair; social‑emotional skills; reduce interpersonal sensitivity/aggression
|Wojcik, K.,D., et al (2019)
|-
|Moral disengagement as avoidance of guilt/shame
|People neutralise guilt/shame before &amp; after wrongdoing
|Increase consequence awareness; empathy training; highlight victim impact; reduce cognitive distancing
|Tillman et al (2018)
|-
|Aggressors show low shame, high indifference/pride
|Moral disengagement in children; lack of victim perspective
|Moral‑emotion education; victim perspective‑taking; empathy development; encourage guilt‑based repair
|Romera et al (2019)
|-
|Shame maladaptive; guilt adaptive
|Shame → withdrawal, defensiveness; guilt → reparative action
|Shift shame → guilt; promote responsibility‑taking;  encourage reparative behaviours; reduce global self‑condemnation
|Tangey et al (2007)
|-
|Insecure attachment → shame, anger, disengagement
|Attachment insecurity distorts moral‑emotion development
|Strengthen attachment security; caregiver sensitivity; relational repair; promote empathy and guilt development
|Costa Martins  et at (2021)
|-
|Developmental pathways of moral emotions
|Moral emotions shaped by socialisation, cognition, empathy
|Developmental scaffolding; emotion coaching; moral reasoning support; structured opportunities for prosocial action
|Malti &amp; Dys (2015)
|}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

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==Conclusion==
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==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
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==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

{{Hanging indent|1=

Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358]

Costa Martins, M., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., &amp; Veríssimo, M. (2021). Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children, 8(10), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8100915

Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., &amp; Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 

Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., &amp; Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]]

Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l]

Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., &amp; Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145]

Turner, J., H., &amp; Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . 

Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286]

Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., &amp; Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse &amp; Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233

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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

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==External links==
[https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED)

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube\88888888888888888888888
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}

[[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]]

;Scenario

Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.”

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. 

To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023).

Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, &amp; Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, &amp; Mashek'', 2007). 

Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|}}
*     What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? &lt;br&gt;
*     How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?&lt;br&gt;
*     How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour?
*     How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are moral emotions?==
Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue.

=== Historical development ===
In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published &quot;The moral Judgement of the child&quot; which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026).

Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as &quot;emotion–cognition hybrids&quot; that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. 

Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki &amp; Stella, 2025). 

=== Basic emotions build moral ones ===
[[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]]
Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &amp;Stella, 2025)

== How moral emotions arise and motivate action ==
Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki &amp; Stellar, 2025). 

=== Prototypical features ===
Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. ''&quot;Emotions high in both disinterested elicitors and prosocial action tendencies are prototypical moral emotions.&quot;'' (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015).

=== Four families of moral emotions ===
Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that 

* '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment.
* '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust.
* '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation.
* '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion.

=== How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: emotional 
|'''Emotion type'''
|'''Emotion'''
|'''Bodily response'''
|'''Motivational  direction'''
|-
|Self-conscious
|Guilt
|Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze
|Repair harm, apologise, confess
|-
|Self-conscious
|Shame
|Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat  in face
|Withdraw, hide, conform to norms
|-
|Self-conscious
|Embarrassment
|Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion
|Appease others, restore social acceptance
|-
|Other-focused
|Empathy/Compassion
|Softened facial muscles, warm affect,  parasympathetic activation
|Help, comfort, support
|-
|Other-focused
|Moral Outrage
|Increased heart rate, clenched jaw,  sympathetic arousal
|Punish, protest, advocate
|-
|Other-focused
|Gratitude
|Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial  activation
|Reciprocate, strengthen bonds
|-
|Other-focused
|Moral Elevation
|Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture
|Emulate virtue, act altruistically
|}

=== Moral identity ===
[[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre et al.’s (2019) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience more intense and more frequent moral emotions, particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an amplifier of moral emotions by:

* increasing sensitivity to moral cues,
* strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness,
* enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness.

Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour.

=== Moral emotion development ===
Moral emotions develop through a gradual integration of children’s emerging affective capacities with increasingly sophisticated social‑cognitive skills. Early in life, infants display basic precursors of empathy, but young children often struggle to coordinate their own perspective with that of others, leading to patterns such as the “[[w:Happy_victimizing|happy victimizer]]” phenomenon, where they may feel good after wrongdoing because they do not yet fully appreciate the victim’s emotional experience (Malti &amp; Dys, 2013). As children’s [[w:Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]] and emotion understanding advance, they become better able to interpret intentions, consequences, and others’ internal states, supporting the emergence of more complex moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and compassion (Lane et al., 2010). By adolescence, these capacities enable meta‑perspective taking—reflecting on moral ideals, trust, and social expectations—which contributes to more stable anticipatory moral emotions, including guilt and pride, and a stronger integration of moral emotions with moral reasoning and identity (Malti &amp; Dys, 2013).

=== Environmental influences ===
Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) concluded that secure attachment is consistently linked to healthier moral‑emotion development, including empathy, guilt, forgiveness, and emotion regulation. Secure attachment fosters the emotional competencies necessary for prosocial behaviour, while insecure attachment increases vulnerability to maladaptive moral affect (e.g., shame, emotional withdrawal). Understanding these pathways is essential for supporting children’s emotional, relational, and academic wellbeing. 

[[w:Adverse_childhood_experiences|Adverse childhood experiences]] (ACE) undermine the development of moral-motivational systems, pushing individuals towards shame based identity, interpersonal conflict and disengagement rather than guilt based repair or prosocial action (Wojcik, K., D., 2019).

Furthermore, childhood abuse and neglect foster chronic, identity‑based shame, with dissociation partially mediating the trauma–shame link by fragmenting self‑representations and preventing integration of painful moral emotions (Santoro, G., et al., 2025) . Dissociation thereby reinforces shame‑laden self‑schemas and disrupts adaptive moral regulation, aligning with Tangney’s account of shame’s tendency to derail empathy and promote defensive avoidance rather than moral repair (Tangey, J., et al., 2007)

== Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour ==
Self conscious emotions arise from three source of self reflection (

=== Guilt ===
Guilt motivates ethical behaviour by compelling individuals to repair harm, apologize, confess, and restore relationships after causing distress or violating communal expectations. (Haidt, 2003)

Explore the following ''&quot;Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost&quot; .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1)

=== Shame ===
Shame motivates ethical behaviour by pushing individuals to withdraw, hide, and correct perceived defects in the self to avoid social condemnation and restore moral standing (Haidt, 2003). 

=== Embarrassment ===
Embarrassment motivates prosocial behaviour by signaling appeasement and recognition of minor social‑conventional violations, helping maintain smooth social interactions and group harmony (Haidt, 2003).

=== Quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour ==

=== Anger, contempt, and disgust ===
Anger, contempt and disgust all have basic and more complex (moral) forms and to explain the motivation of prosocial behaviour, distinguishing them is required. Moral anger motivates ethical behaviour by driving people to confront and correct perceived injustices, even on behalf of others, making it a prototypical moral enforcer, whereas disgust prompts avoidance of actions or individuals as degrading or violating social behaviours, mainly regarding the body (Haidt, 2003). Haidt (2003) continues highlight that (moral) contempt is the &quot;middle brother&quot; between anger and disgust, with motivating individuals holding contempt to another they deem as inferior or unworthy, reducing warmth and respect toward them and reinforcing social standards and hierarchy as they do not &quot;measure up&quot; to societal norms.

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Moral outrage|Moral outrage]] is further indicated as motivating prosocial behaviour and distinguished from anger when an individual witnesses an injustice to that harms another person, without affecting the self (Van de Vyver &amp; Abrams, 2015). Moral outrage elicits justice-orientated prosocial action. Research has shown that 

=== Awe, elevation and gratitude - ===
Elevation motivates prosocial behaviour by inspiring people to emulate moral exemplars, broaden their moral aspirations, and engage in altruistic or cooperative actions. Gratitude encourages reciprocity and strengthens social bonds with others which in turn reinforces cooperation and prosocial exchanges (Haidt, 2003). Awe is elicited by exposure to beauty and perfection, making people stop, admire and open their hearts and mind. 

Moral elevation arises when people witness moral virtue, creating a warm, inspired feeling that motivates benevolent helping. Studies have shown, elevation increased charitable donations, showing a clear effect on kindness‑focused prosocial behaviour (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). When witnessing moral excellence—acts of charity, fidelity, generosity, or virtue, it produces a warm, uplifted feeling in the chest and a sense of becoming “less selfish”. Crucially, elevation triggers a specific action tendency: emulation—the desire to “do charitable and grateful acts also” (Algoe &amp; Haidt, 2009). Empirical evidence shows elevation motivates prosocial behaviour, including nurturant caregiving and spontaneous helping of others . In short, elevation motivates people to imitate virtue and act kindly toward others. 

Gratitude is triggered when one perceives being the beneficiary of another’s intentional kindness. Its motivational core is relationship enhancement: gratitude motivates people to repay, acknowledge, or reward the benefactor’s actions . Beyond simple reciprocity, gratitude broadens interpersonal thinking, motivating behaviours that increase closeness, such as spending time together or offering friendship and loyalty. Empirical work shows gratitude predicts improved relationship quality over time. Thus, gratitude’s motivational mechanism is to build and strengthen social bonds with responsive, benevolent others (Algoe and Haidt, 2009). 

Algoe and Haidt (2009) further explore admiration, claiming it arises when witnessing non‑moral excellence—extraordinary skill, talent, or achievement. It produces feelings of inspiration, awe, and energized approval. The motivational mechanism of admiration is self‑improvement: it inspires people to work harder, develop their own abilities, and pursue excellence, which builds pro social interactions. Theoretical work indicates that followers feel admiration and seek proximity to role models to learn from them and cultivate their own skills. Empirical studies show admiration increases motivation toward academic, professional, or personal success. In essence, admiration motivates aspiration and personal growth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
;Let's look back at the scenario

You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Compassion ===

Compassion motivates prosocial behaviour by creating a desire to alleviate others’ suffering through helping, comforting, and caregiving actions (Haidt, 2003).
== Maladaptive moral affect ==
While moral emotions regulate ethical and prosocial behaviour, it is important to recognise that distortions of these emotions can develop via adverse childhood experiences and trauma predict antisocial outcomes, with maladaptive forms of guilt and shame linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Shame, guilt, and recidivism|recidivism]]. Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) found that attachment insecurity in children was linked with poor [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|emotional regulation]] and predicted maladaptive moral affect. Avoidant attachment is associated with higher shame and lower empathy. For example, avoidant children show significantly higher shame scores, in adolescence there was less empathic concern and lower perspective taking. This aligns with broader findings that insecure attachment disrupts the development of adaptive guilt and empathy. (Costa Martins et al 2021).

Furthermore, Tangney, J.,P., et all (2007) review establishes the foundational distinction between adaptive guilt and maladaptive shame, showing that guilt is behaviour‑focused and reparative, whereas shame involves global negative self‑evaluation, withdrawal, anger, and externalisation of blame.

=== Moral disengagement ===
[[w:Moral_disengagement|Moral disengagement]] occurs as a way to justify unethical behaviour when the moral emotion appraisal process is distorted to not be applied to oneself. Research shows that individuals cognitively neutralise guilt and shame both before wrongdoing (anticipatory disengagement) and after wrongdoing (post‑hoc disengagement), using mechanisms such as minimising harm, diffusing responsibility, or dehumanising victims to protect the self from moral emotions that would otherwise motivate repair (Tillman, C.,J., et al., 2018) . Learning about the real consequences of one’s harmful actions intensifies guilt and shame, prompting further disengagement as a coping mechanism, illustrating how maladaptive moral affect can be sustained through cognitive distancing rather than resolved through reparative action.  

Developmental findings from bullying contexts further illustrate how moral emotions shape behaviour: primary‑school aggressors consistently attribute less shame and more indifference or pride to victims, reflecting entrenched disengagement and reduced empathic concern (Romera E.,M., et al., 2019). In contrast, children who experience or attribute guilt show greater moral sensitivity and prosocial tendencies, consistent with Tangney’s (2007) claim that guilt fosters empathy and constructive action .

=== Mitigating maladaptive moral affect ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Maladaptive concern
!Maladaptive development pathway
!Mitigation strategies
!Reference 
|-
|ACEs → shame/guilt proneness
|Interpersonal sensitivity → shame; interpersonal aggression → guilt
|Improve interpersonal functioning; attachment repair; social‑emotional skills; reduce interpersonal sensitivity/aggression
|Wojcik, K.,D., et al (2019)
|-
|Moral disengagement as avoidance of guilt/shame
|People neutralise guilt/shame before &amp; after wrongdoing
|Increase consequence awareness; empathy training; highlight victim impact; reduce cognitive distancing
|Tillman et al (2018)
|-
|Aggressors show low shame, high indifference/pride
|Moral disengagement in children; lack of victim perspective
|Moral‑emotion education; victim perspective‑taking; empathy development; encourage guilt‑based repair
|Romera et al (2019)
|-
|Shame maladaptive; guilt adaptive
|Shame → withdrawal, defensiveness; guilt → reparative action
|Shift shame → guilt; promote responsibility‑taking;  encourage reparative behaviours; reduce global self‑condemnation
|Tangey et al (2007)
|-
|Insecure attachment → shame, anger, disengagement
|Attachment insecurity distorts moral‑emotion development
|Strengthen attachment security; caregiver sensitivity; relational repair; promote empathy and guilt development
|Costa Martins  et at (2021)
|-
|Developmental pathways of moral emotions
|Moral emotions shaped by socialisation, cognition, empathy
|Developmental scaffolding; emotion coaching; moral reasoning support; structured opportunities for prosocial action
|Malti &amp; Dys (2015)
|}

==Figures==
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==See also==
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==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

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Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358]

Costa Martins, M., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., &amp; Veríssimo, M. (2021). Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children, 8(10), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8100915

Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., &amp; Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 

Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., &amp; Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]]

Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l]

Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., &amp; Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145]

Turner, J., H., &amp; Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . 

Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286]

Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., &amp; Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse &amp; Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233

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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

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==External links==
[https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED)

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube)

[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2689844/ Witnessing excellence in action: the ‘other-praising’ emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration - PMC]
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}

[[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]]

;Scenario

Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.”

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. 

To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023).

Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, &amp; Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, &amp; Mashek'', 2007). 

Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|}}
*     What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? &lt;br&gt;
*     How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?&lt;br&gt;
*     How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour?
*     How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are moral emotions?==
Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue.

=== Historical development ===
In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published &quot;The moral Judgement of the child&quot; which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026).

Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as &quot;emotion–cognition hybrids&quot; that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. 

Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki &amp; Stella, 2025). 

=== Basic emotions build moral ones ===
[[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]]
Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &amp;Stella, 2025)

== How moral emotions arise and motivate action ==
Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki &amp; Stellar, 2025). 

=== Prototypical features ===
Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. ''&quot;Emotions high in both disinterested elicitors and prosocial action tendencies are prototypical moral emotions.&quot;'' (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015).

=== Four families of moral emotions ===
Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that 

* '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment.
* '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust.
* '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation.
* '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion.

=== How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: emotional 
|'''Emotion type'''
|'''Emotion'''
|'''Bodily response'''
|'''Motivational  direction'''
|-
|Self-conscious
|Guilt
|Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze
|Repair harm, apologise, confess
|-
|Self-conscious
|Shame
|Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat  in face
|Withdraw, hide, conform to norms
|-
|Self-conscious
|Embarrassment
|Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion
|Appease others, restore social acceptance
|-
|Other-focused
|Empathy/Compassion
|Softened facial muscles, warm affect,  parasympathetic activation
|Help, comfort, support
|-
|Other-focused
|Moral Outrage
|Increased heart rate, clenched jaw,  sympathetic arousal
|Punish, protest, advocate
|-
|Other-focused
|Gratitude
|Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial  activation
|Reciprocate, strengthen bonds
|-
|Other-focused
|Moral Elevation
|Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture
|Emulate virtue, act altruistically
|}

=== Moral identity ===
[[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre et al.’s (2019) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience more intense and more frequent moral emotions, particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an amplifier of moral emotions by:

* increasing sensitivity to moral cues,
* strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness,
* enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness.

Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour.

=== Moral emotion development ===
Moral emotions develop through a gradual integration of children’s emerging affective capacities with increasingly sophisticated social‑cognitive skills. Early in life, infants display basic precursors of empathy, but young children often struggle to coordinate their own perspective with that of others, leading to patterns such as the “[[w:Happy_victimizing|happy victimizer]]” phenomenon, where they may feel good after wrongdoing because they do not yet fully appreciate the victim’s emotional experience (Malti &amp; Dys, 2013). As children’s [[w:Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]] and emotion understanding advance, they become better able to interpret intentions, consequences, and others’ internal states, supporting the emergence of more complex moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and compassion (Lane et al., 2010). By adolescence, these capacities enable meta‑perspective taking—reflecting on moral ideals, trust, and social expectations—which contributes to more stable anticipatory moral emotions, including guilt and pride, and a stronger integration of moral emotions with moral reasoning and identity (Malti &amp; Dys, 2013).

=== Environmental influences ===
Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) concluded that secure attachment is consistently linked to healthier moral‑emotion development, including empathy, guilt, forgiveness, and emotion regulation. Secure attachment fosters the emotional competencies necessary for prosocial behaviour, while insecure attachment increases vulnerability to maladaptive moral affect (e.g., shame, emotional withdrawal). Understanding these pathways is essential for supporting children’s emotional, relational, and academic wellbeing. 

[[w:Adverse_childhood_experiences|Adverse childhood experiences]] (ACE) undermine the development of moral-motivational systems, pushing individuals towards shame based identity, interpersonal conflict and disengagement rather than guilt based repair or prosocial action (Wojcik, K., D., 2019).

Furthermore, childhood abuse and neglect foster chronic, identity‑based shame, with dissociation partially mediating the trauma–shame link by fragmenting self‑representations and preventing integration of painful moral emotions (Santoro, G., et al., 2025) . Dissociation thereby reinforces shame‑laden self‑schemas and disrupts adaptive moral regulation, aligning with Tangney’s account of shame’s tendency to derail empathy and promote defensive avoidance rather than moral repair (Tangey, J., et al., 2007)

== Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour ==
Self conscious emotions arise from three source of self reflection (

=== Pride ===

=== Guilt ===
Guilt motivates ethical behaviour by compelling individuals to repair harm, apologize, confess, and restore relationships after causing distress or violating communal expectations. (Haidt, 2003)

Explore the following ''&quot;Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost&quot; .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1)

=== Shame ===
Shame motivates ethical behaviour by pushing individuals to withdraw, hide, and correct perceived defects in the self to avoid social condemnation and restore moral standing (Haidt, 2003). 

=== Embarrassment ===
Embarrassment motivates prosocial behaviour by signaling appeasement and recognition of minor social‑conventional violations, helping maintain smooth social interactions and group harmony (Haidt, 2003).

=== Quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour ==

=== Anger, contempt, and disgust ===
Anger, contempt and disgust all have basic and more complex (moral) forms and to explain the motivation of prosocial behaviour, distinguishing them is required. Moral anger motivates ethical behaviour by driving people to confront and correct perceived injustices, even on behalf of others, making it a prototypical moral enforcer, whereas disgust prompts avoidance of actions or individuals as degrading or violating social behaviours, mainly regarding the body (Haidt, 2003). Haidt (2003) continues highlight that (moral) contempt is the &quot;middle brother&quot; between anger and disgust, with motivating individuals holding contempt to another they deem as inferior or unworthy, reducing warmth and respect toward them and reinforcing social standards and hierarchy as they do not &quot;measure up&quot; to societal norms.

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Moral outrage|Moral outrage]] is further indicated as motivating prosocial behaviour and distinguished from anger when an individual witnesses an injustice to that harms another person, without affecting the self (Van de Vyver &amp; Abrams, 2015). Moral outrage elicits justice-orientated prosocial action. Research has shown that 

=== Awe, elevation and gratitude - ===
Elevation motivates prosocial behaviour by inspiring people to emulate moral exemplars, broaden their moral aspirations, and engage in altruistic or cooperative actions. Gratitude encourages reciprocity and strengthens social bonds with others which in turn reinforces cooperation and prosocial exchanges (Haidt, 2003). Awe is elicited by exposure to beauty and perfection, making people stop, admire and open their hearts and mind. 

Moral elevation arises when people witness moral virtue, creating a warm, inspired feeling that motivates benevolent helping. Studies have shown, elevation increased charitable donations, showing a clear effect on kindness‑focused prosocial behaviour (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). When witnessing moral excellence—acts of charity, fidelity, generosity, or virtue, it produces a warm, uplifted feeling in the chest and a sense of becoming “less selfish”. Crucially, elevation triggers a specific action tendency: emulation—the desire to “do charitable and grateful acts also” (Algoe &amp; Haidt, 2009). Empirical evidence shows elevation motivates prosocial behaviour, including nurturant caregiving and spontaneous helping of others . In short, elevation motivates people to imitate virtue and act kindly toward others. 

Gratitude is triggered when one perceives being the beneficiary of another’s intentional kindness. Its motivational core is relationship enhancement: gratitude motivates people to repay, acknowledge, or reward the benefactor’s actions . Beyond simple reciprocity, gratitude broadens interpersonal thinking, motivating behaviours that increase closeness, such as spending time together or offering friendship and loyalty. Empirical work shows gratitude predicts improved relationship quality over time. Thus, gratitude’s motivational mechanism is to build and strengthen social bonds with responsive, benevolent others (Algoe and Haidt, 2009). 

Algoe and Haidt (2009) further explore admiration, claiming it arises when witnessing non‑moral excellence—extraordinary skill, talent, or achievement. It produces feelings of inspiration, awe, and energized approval. The motivational mechanism of admiration is self‑improvement: it inspires people to work harder, develop their own abilities, and pursue excellence, which builds pro social interactions. Theoretical work indicates that followers feel admiration and seek proximity to role models to learn from them and cultivate their own skills. Empirical studies show admiration increases motivation toward academic, professional, or personal success. In essence, admiration motivates aspiration and personal growth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
;Let's look back at the scenario

You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Compassion ===

Compassion motivates prosocial behaviour by creating a desire to alleviate others’ suffering through helping, comforting, and caregiving actions (Haidt, 2003). Empathy (feelings of sympathy, tenderness, and warmth) and compassion are tightly connected because empathy produces the emotional state that compassion ''is'' — an other‑oriented feeling of concern, tenderness, and warmth toward someone who is suffering. Stocks et al. (2009) describe empathy as an emotional response “congruent with the perceived welfare of another person”, evoking altruistic motive to reduce the victim’s suffering, not an egoistic motive to reduce one’s own discomfort. Stocks et al. (2009) show that empathic individuals help even when psychological escape is easy, meaning helping cannot be explained by egoistic arousal‑reduction motives. Empathy therefore motivates prosocial behaviour because it creates a commitment to the victim’s welfare, not simply a desire to escape one’s own aversive feelings.

== Maladaptive moral affect ==
While moral emotions regulate ethical and prosocial behaviour, it is important to recognise that distortions of these emotions can develop via adverse childhood experiences and trauma predict antisocial outcomes, with maladaptive forms of guilt and shame linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Shame, guilt, and recidivism|recidivism]]. Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) found that attachment insecurity in children was linked with poor [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|emotional regulation]] and predicted maladaptive moral affect. Avoidant attachment is associated with higher shame and lower empathy. For example, avoidant children show significantly higher shame scores, in adolescence there was less empathic concern and lower perspective taking. This aligns with broader findings that insecure attachment disrupts the development of adaptive guilt and empathy. (Costa Martins et al 2021).

Furthermore, Tangney, J.,P., et all (2007) review establishes the foundational distinction between adaptive guilt and maladaptive shame, showing that guilt is behaviour‑focused and reparative, whereas shame involves global negative self‑evaluation, withdrawal, anger, and externalisation of blame.

=== Moral disengagement ===
[[w:Moral_disengagement|Moral disengagement]] occurs as a way to justify unethical behaviour when the moral emotion appraisal process is distorted to not be applied to oneself. Research shows that individuals cognitively neutralise guilt and shame both before wrongdoing (anticipatory disengagement) and after wrongdoing (post‑hoc disengagement), using mechanisms such as minimising harm, diffusing responsibility, or dehumanising victims to protect the self from moral emotions that would otherwise motivate repair (Tillman, C.,J., et al., 2018) . Learning about the real consequences of one’s harmful actions intensifies guilt and shame, prompting further disengagement as a coping mechanism, illustrating how maladaptive moral affect can be sustained through cognitive distancing rather than resolved through reparative action.  

Developmental findings from bullying contexts further illustrate how moral emotions shape behaviour: primary‑school aggressors consistently attribute less shame and more indifference or pride to victims, reflecting entrenched disengagement and reduced empathic concern (Romera E.,M., et al., 2019). In contrast, children who experience or attribute guilt show greater moral sensitivity and prosocial tendencies, consistent with Tangney’s (2007) claim that guilt fosters empathy and constructive action .

=== Mitigating maladaptive moral affect ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Maladaptive concern
!Maladaptive development pathway
!Mitigation strategies
!Reference 
|-
|ACEs → shame/guilt proneness
|Interpersonal sensitivity → shame; interpersonal aggression → guilt
|Improve interpersonal functioning; attachment repair; social‑emotional skills; reduce interpersonal sensitivity/aggression
|Wojcik, K.,D., et al (2019)
|-
|Moral disengagement as avoidance of guilt/shame
|People neutralise guilt/shame before &amp; after wrongdoing
|Increase consequence awareness; empathy training; highlight victim impact; reduce cognitive distancing
|Tillman et al (2018)
|-
|Aggressors show low shame, high indifference/pride
|Moral disengagement in children; lack of victim perspective
|Moral‑emotion education; victim perspective‑taking; empathy development; encourage guilt‑based repair
|Romera et al (2019)
|-
|Shame maladaptive; guilt adaptive
|Shame → withdrawal, defensiveness; guilt → reparative action
|Shift shame → guilt; promote responsibility‑taking;  encourage reparative behaviours; reduce global self‑condemnation
|Tangey et al (2007)
|-
|Insecure attachment → shame, anger, disengagement
|Attachment insecurity distorts moral‑emotion development
|Strengthen attachment security; caregiver sensitivity; relational repair; promote empathy and guilt development
|Costa Martins  et at (2021)
|-
|Developmental pathways of moral emotions
|Moral emotions shaped by socialisation, cognition, empathy
|Developmental scaffolding; emotion coaching; moral reasoning support; structured opportunities for prosocial action
|Malti &amp; Dys (2015)
|}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

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==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
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==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

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Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358]

Costa Martins, M., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., &amp; Veríssimo, M. (2021). Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children, 8(10), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8100915

Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., &amp; Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 

Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., &amp; Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]]

Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l]

Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., &amp; Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145]

Turner, J., H., &amp; Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . 

Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286]

Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., &amp; Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse &amp; Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233

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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

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==External links==
[https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED)

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube)

[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2689844/ Witnessing excellence in action: the ‘other-praising’ emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration - PMC]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
[[File:Holding hands by wall (Unsplash).jpg|thumb| '''Figure 1'''. Hands holding; representing friends comforting each other]] 

;Imagine this... 

Nathan has noticed his friend, Sam, becoming more distant over the last few months, loosing sleep and enjoyment in their hobbies. Knowing that Sam has a history of depression, Nathan becomes increasingly worried about their wellbeing. 

Uncertain about what to do, Nathan starts looking for ways to reach out to Sam; looking for advice for what to do and resources that they might be able to use. Eventually, Nathan finds a training course called Mental Health First Aid and, through doing it, begins to feel empowered to help his friend (see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Mental_health|Mental health]] is an important determinant of [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]] and life satisfaction, {{g}} is closely related to [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]], impacts [[wikipedia:Interpersonal_relationship|interpersonal relationships]] and the overall wellbeing of a population (Hill et al., 2023, Gautam et al., 2024). [[wikipedia:Social_stigma|Social stigma]] is one of the largest deterrents from mental health support engagement, discouraging conversations around mental health struggles {{g}} preventing those in need from finding informal social support and looking for professional help (Ahad et al., 2023).  

In an effort to promote mental health support, [[wikipedia:Betty_Kitchener|Betty Kitchener]] and [[wikipedia:Anthony_Jorm|Anthony Jorm]] developed the [[wikipedia:Mental_health_first_aid|mental health first aid]] (MHFA) program, an evidence-based course designed to equip trainees with skills to support others during times of mental distress or crisis and refer them to professional help when needed (Mental Health First Aid International, 2025). This course has continued to grow and develop into a program used on an international level (Mental Health First Aid International, 2025).  

By understanding the efficacy of the MHFA program and participant [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]] using [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), it may be possible to promote engagement with MHFA courses and reduce stigma surrounding mental health on an international level.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Focus questions''' 

* What is the importance of mental health?
* What is Mental Health First Aid?
* What is the impact and necessity of Mental Health First Aid {{vague}}? 
* How does Self-Determination Theory explain motivation to participate in Mental Health First Aid courses?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Mental health ==
[[File:Autism-Neurodiversity-or-Mental-health-symbol.svg|thumb|207x207px|'''Figure 2.''' Illustrated image of a brain in silhouetted head {{ic|Explain relevance to the topic}}]]

Mental health describes a state of mental well-being that enables person’s ability to contribute to society, [[wikipedia:Coping|cope]] with [[wikipedia:Stress_(biology)|stress]], manage interpersonal relationships and [[wikipedia:Decision-making|decision-making]] (APA, 2026, WHO, 2026a, WHO, 2026b) and is one of the largest determinants of well-being and life satisfaction (Hill et al., 2023, Gautam et al., 2024). 

Mental health is informed by numerous factors, including biological predisposition, psychological conditions and social factors such as socio-economic status, social relationships and cultural context (Ahad et al., 2023, WHO, 2026b). Increased exposure to adverse life circumstances is closely related to decreased mental health and well-being whilst increasing chances of having a mental disorder (WHO, 2026a). Mental disorders affect 1/7th of the population, constituting 1.2 billion people internationally (WHO, 2026a), with the most common disorders experienced being [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|depression]] and [[wikipedia:Anxiety_disorder|anxiety]] (Auerbach et al., 2018, WHO, 2026a). 

Those who experience better mental health and well-being are more likely to have higher educational achievements, healthier lifestyles, increased productivity and decreased engagement with risky behaviours and antisocial behaviours such as crime, violence and substance use (Gautam et al., 2024). Well-being can be divided into eudemonic well-being, where a person experiences a sense of purpose and a desire to contribute to society, and hedonic well-being, where a person experiences more positive feelings (Hill et al., 2023). 

Given the importance of mental health at a societal and individual level, it is imperative that those who are struggling with their mental health have as few barriers preventing them from receiving treatment as possible. Social support and community based interventions are some of the most effective forms of mental health care (Ahad et al., 2023, Jorm et al., 2005, WHO, 2026b), {{g}} even relatively small improvements to mental health can result in meaningful change to wellbeing. (Ahad et al., 2023). Whilst professional mental health treatment can effectively be provided at low costs (WHO, 2026b), mental health services are significantly under-resourced at an international level (WHO, 2026b). Additionally, social stigmas and cultural biases hinder engagement with mental health services and adherence to treatment plans (Ahad et al., 2023), {{g}} decreasing the efficacy of existing resources and preventing informal social support amongst community members. An emphasis needs to be placed on the destigmatisation of mental disorders to improve {{g}} reduce delay in accessing mental health treatment and the promotion of social support at a community level.

== Mental health first aid ==
MHFA is an evidenced-based training program that aims to reduce social stigma surrounding receiving mental health care, increase [[wikipedia:Mental_health_literacy|mental health literacy]] and equip trainees with the skills required to recognise and support those who might be struggling with their mental health; this support may include being a listening ear or redirecting the recipient of help to receiving professional assistance (Mental Health First Aid International, 2025). Three variations of the training program have been developed to specifically assist trainees across different age ranges with different target help groups. Two of the developed programs are designed for trainees to support young people, one of which is designed for teens, while the third program targets adult trainees supporting other adults (Mental Health First Aid International, 2025).  

MHFA introduces trainees to the ALGEE acronym:
* Assess and assist with crisis, 
* Listen non-judgementally, 
* Give reassurance and information, 
* Encourage professional help, 
* Encourage self-help and support strategies (Forthal et al., 2021, Mental Health First Aid International, 2025, Rodgers et al., 2019).  

Whilst MHFA originates from [[wikipedia:Australia|Australia]], the program has been applied at an international level; reaching over 50 countries and 9 million trainees (Mental Health First Aid International, 2025). The exact content, duration and linguistic phrasing of the program can be adapted to befit the cultural context the course is being used (Forthal et al., 2021), {{g}} these alterations and studies showing the effects of the program to be consistent over multiple countries helps to support the cross-cultural validity of the program (Morgan et al., 2018).  

MHFA has consistently been found to increase trainees’ abilities to recognise mental disorders and crisis situations, beliefs in effective treatment and mental health literacy and knowledge whilst reducing stigma towards mental disorders (Forthal et al., 2021, Jorm et al., 2005, Morgan et al., 2018, Rodgers et al., 2019). Rodgers et al., {{g}} (2019) highlights that, in addition to the effects above, {{who}} trainees’ felt they had developed more [[wikipedia:Emotional_intelligence|emotional intelligence]] and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]], strengthening their relationships and trust with people in their lives.

Within a longitudinal study {{where}}, Forthal et al. (2021) found that MHFA trainees who held more confidence in their ability to help others were more likely to report having used their training skills at follow up; this finding close {{g}} aligns with Jorm et al’s {{g}} (2005) suggestion that those who have more confidence in their skill feel more empowered to support others. Over multiple studies, {{g}} majority of those who used their skills reported feeling that they had been helpful and were more likely to help friends and family over co-workers or strangers (Jorm et al., 2005, Rodgers et al., 2019). Providing information for and referring the recipient of help to appropriate professional help, listening without judgement and calming the recipient were the skills most often reported to have been used (Rodgers et al., 2019). Chan et al. (2024) found that trainees felt more confident and a sense of gratitude after using their skills and helping others. 

More research needs to be conducted into the effectiveness of trainee support on recipients (Forthal et al., 2021, Morgan et al., 2018), however, a number of trainees noted that the recipients of their help went on to seek professional assistance or felt that the environment when they started to use their skills (Jorm et al., 2005, Rodgers et al., 2019, Sibeoni et al., 2023). By empowering trainees to help others and removing stigma surrounding mental disorders or seeking mental healthcare is instrumental in creating settings that encourage preventative care, social support and healthy behaviours {{g}}. 

== Motivation to help ==
By developing an understanding of what motivates MHFA trainees to help others it may be possible to identify other potential trainees and foster motivation to continue creating more supportive cultures around mental health.

=== Motivation to partake in MHFA courses ===
When interviewing MHFA trainees and officers about their motivations for partaking in the program a few common themes begin to emerge; {{g}} motivation derived {{awkward}} by career, motivation derived by a want to help others and motivation derived from experience (Carpini et al., 2024, Chan et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023).  

The most common motivator in MHFA participation was previous experience with mental health issues (Carpini et al., 2024, Chan et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023). These motivating experiences could range between being personal to being a shared experience with another person, or a combination of both (Carpini et al., 2024, Chan et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023). In Crawford &amp; Burn's (2020) study, it was the participants that had the most contact with others experiencing mental health issues that were most likely to have practiced the learnt skills and feel confident in their ability to help others. These initial experiences have been described as sparking participant interest in learning about mental health and wanting to support others. 

This motivation to help others was consistently listed as a factor in enrolling in MHFA courses (Carpini et al., 2024, Chan et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023) with participants often reporting a desire to develop skills to support other people in their lives, ranging from friends and family to coworkers (Chan et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023). This desire to learn and improve mental health literacy is further outlined by Crawford &amp; Burns (2020) as a motivating factor.  

{{g}} Majority of research into MHFA training is derived from respondents working in or studying healthcare related fields such as [[wikipedia:Nursing|nursing]], [[wikipedia:Psychiatry|psychiatry]] or [[wikipedia:psychology|psychology]] (Chan et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023); this may be a factor in the number of responses referencing motivation to partake in MHFA programs for career purposes. Respondents would highlight wanting to be more prepared when going into practice and how the completion of the course would look good on a resume (Carpini et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023). One respondent from Chan and colleagues’ (2024) study reported being required to participate MHFA participation as a part of their job role. 

=== Contextualising MHFA motivation with self-determination theory ===
SDT posits that humans have an inherent drive for self-improvement that can either be supported or impeded by social environments and the ways in which they impact psychological needs (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). According to SDT, basic psychological needs consist of competency, relatedness and autonomy and when satisfied positively contribute to well-being (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is a desire to act on one’s own accord and aligned with personal values and self-identity,[[wikipedia:Competence_(human_resources)|competency]] is a desire to feel competent in a task and [[wikipedia:Social_relation|relatedness]] is a desire to connect with others (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). SDT describes [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic]] motivation as occurring when a person has an inerrant interest in an action, is entirely autonomous and satisfies all basic psychological needs (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020) whilst [[wikipedia:Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic|external]] motivation occurs when an additional incentive is required to want to complete an action (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).  

Of the explored motivations to partake in MHFA training, both previous experiences and wanting to help are intrinsic motivations whilst career driven participation is an external motivator. Both wanting to help and previous experiences are based on participant values and self-identity. Given that desire to help and previous experiences are more significant motivators than career driven motivation, it is likely that participation in MHFA courses stems from an intrinsic motivation that coincides with careers that are also largely intrinsically motivated.

=== Consequence and integration of intrinsic motivation on MHFA ===
Behaviour that is intrinsically motivated has been found to have positive effects on the wellbeing of the helper (Kelley et al., 2023, Weinstein &amp; Ryan, 2010, Zhang et al., 2024) and prolong satisfaction elicited from [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|prosocial]] behaviours (Zhang et al., 2024) such as those exhibited in MHFA training.   

Those that {{g}} engage with intrinsic prosocial behaviour are more likely to experience higher levels of mental health, feelings of happiness, well-being, and reduced feelings of depression (Weinstein &amp; Ryan, 2010, Zhang et al., 2024). Weinstein &amp; Ryan (2010) propose that this may be because intrinsic prosocial behaviour fulfils all aspects of basic psychological needs; competency is met by creating tangible changes in the world and utilising skills, relatedness is met by interacting and helping others and autonomy Is inherently met as the behaviour is volitional. This overall satisfaction of psychological needs feeds into itself and prolongs the feelings of happiness associated with the behaviours as seen in Zhang and colleagues' (2024) studies. 

Research has produced evidence of controlled motivation having adverse impacts on participant motivation, emotion and reflection on helping behaviour (Kelley et al., 2023, Weinstein &amp; Ryan, 2010, Zhang et al., 2024); this suggests that it is best to avoid forcing people to participate in MHFA training lest they reflect on their experiences and the program poorly. Instead, the best way to promote participants engaging with MHFA may be to increase their empathy and inherent interest in the subject matter (Pavey et al., 2012). Pavey et al., (2012) found that increasing empathy within participants using empathy-stimulating media {{example}} increased intrinsic motivation to help and may possibly reinforce future prosocial behaviours. 

If potential participants can be identified and their interest fostered, it might be possible to encourage more people to partake in MHFA training to create positive and supportive environments for those struggling with their mental health.

== Conclusion ==
Given the pervasiveness of mental health issues (WHO, 2026b) on an international scale, it is imperative that interventions are implemented to reduce the stigma placed on mental health and professional help is accessible. Mental health first aid aims to increase trainees’ confidence in intervening, increasing mental health literacy and social support, reducing stigma and empowering recipients of help to seek professional care (Mental Health First Aid International, 2025). Trainees are often intrinsically motivated, driven by experiences that spark personal prosocial values that encourage helping others (Carpini et al., 2024, Chan et al., 2024, Crawford &amp; Burns, 2020, Sibeoni et al., 2023). Given the impact intrinsically motivated prosocial behaviour has on both helper and recipient well-being (Kelley et al., 2023, Weinstein &amp; Ryan, 2010, Zhang et al., 2024), finding ways to promote intrinsic interests in mental health first aid may be beneficial in creating more friendly environments that facilitate mental health conversations.  

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Mental_health_first_aid|Mental health first aid]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Mental health help-seeking motivation|Mental health help-seeking motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2025)

== References ==
{{hanging indent|1=

Ahad, A. A., Sanchez-Gonzalez, M., &amp; Junquera, P. (2023). Understanding and addressing mental health stigma across cultures for improving psychiatric care: A narrative review. Cureus, 15(5). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.39549

Auerbach, R. P., Mortier, P., Bruffaerts, R., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Cuijpers, P., Demyttenaere, K., Ebert, D. D., Green, J. G., Hasking, P., Murray, E., Nock, M. K., Pinder-Amaker, S., Sampson, N. A., Stein, D. J., Vilagut, G., Zaslavsky, A. M., Kessler, R. C., &amp; WHO WMH-ICS Collaborators. (2018). WHO World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Project: Prevalence and distribution of mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(7), 623–638. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000362

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Mental health. In APA dictionary of psychology. Retrieved October 8, 2026, from https://dictionary.apa.org/mental-health

Carpini, J. A., Booth, J., Johal, S., Odesnik, B., Soon, S., Boyne, E., Clifford, R., Ashoorian, D. (2024). Mental Health First Aid Officers in the Wild: A Qualitative Study of Role Formalisation, Motivation and Support Systems. Advances in Mental Health, 22(3), 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/18387357.2024.2320627

Chan, A. E., Kniola, E. T., &amp; Francis, R. (2024). Emotional Experiences of Mental Health First Aid Trainees: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 12(2), 3. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7607-8822 

Crawford, G., Burns, S. (2020). Confidence and motivation to help those with a mental health problem: experiences from a study of nursing students completing mental health first aid (MHFA) training. BMC Medical Education, 20(69). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-1983-2

Forthal, S., Sadowska, K., Pike, K. M., Balachander, M., Jacobsson, K., Hermosilla, S. (2021). Mental Health First Aid: A Systematic Review of Trainee Behavior and Recipient Mental Health Outcomes. Psychiatric Services, 73(4), 439–446. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202100027

Gautam, S., Jain, A., Chaudhary, J., Gautam, M., Gaur, M., &amp; Grover, S. (2024). Concept of mental health and mental well-being, it's determinants and coping strategies. Indian journal of psychiatry, 66(2), 231-244. https://doi.org/10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_707_23

Hill, T.G., Mackinnon, S.P., Smale, B. (2023). Relative Importance of Individual and Community Predictors of Wellbeing. International Journal of Community Well-Being, 6, 279–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413-023-00196-8

Jorm, A.F., Kitchener, B.A. Mugford, S.K. (2005). Experiences in applying skills learned in a mental health first aid training course: a qualitative study of participants' stories. BMC Psychiatry, 5(43). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-5-43

Kelley, N. J., Weinstein, N., Smith, E. E., Davis, W. E., Christy, A. G., Sedikides, C., &amp; Schlegel, R. J. (2023). Emotional, motivational and attitudinal consequences of autonomous prosocial behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 53, 486–502. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2916

Mental Health First Aid Australia. (2025). Homepage {{!}} Mental Health First Aid. Mhfa.Com.Au. https://www.mhfa.com.au/

Morgan, A. J., Ross, A., &amp; Reavley, N. J. (2018). Systematic review and meta-analysis of Mental Health First Aid training: Effects on knowledge, stigma, and helping behaviour. PloS one, 13(5), e0197102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211435940 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197102 

Pavey, L., Greitemeyer, T., &amp; Sparks, P. (2012). “I help because I want to, not because you tell me to” empathy increases autonomously motivated helping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(5), 681-689. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211435940

Rodgers, G., Burns, S., Crawford, G. (2021). “I was able to actually do something useful”: evaluating the experiences of university students after completing Mental Health First Aid: a mixed-methods study. Advances in Mental Health, 19(1), 40–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/18387357.2019.1663709

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness (pp. xii, 756). The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806 

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 

Sibeoni, J., Ellul, P., Bubola, T., Debiche, Y., Piot, M-A. (2023). Mental health first aid training among healthcare French students: a qualitative study, Frontiers in Medicine, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1268277

Weinstein, N., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of personality and social psychology, 98(2), 222-244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984

World Health Organisation (2026). Mental health. World Health Organisation.https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengthening-our-response 

World Health Organisation (2026). Mental health. World Health Organisation.https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengthening-our-response 

Zhang, Z., Lv, J., Jiang, T., Chen, X., &amp; Luo, Y. (2024). Motivation matters: Autonomous motivation sustains the happiness from prosocial behavior. Motivation Science, 10(2), 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000319

}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/get-support/talk-to-a-counsellor Beyond blue] (Beyond Blue)
* [https://www.mhfa.com.au/ mental health first aid international information home page] (mental health first aid)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>Book chapter feedback</comment>
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      <text bytes="13987" sha1="96q6igrlxt9il3ynytpvw79o1rnwgbx" xml:space="preserve">== starter articles ==

Hey, cool subject. I found this artical of a control trail that looks like it is very relevant to your topic. Good luck with the project! Lee, H. (2026). Empowering Adults to Support Youth Mental Health: A Non-Randomized Controlled Trial of Youth Mental Health First Aid Training on Helping Behavior and Mental Health Literacy Outcomes. ''Mental Health (Ciampino)'', ''9''(1), 135–154. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.56508/mhgcj.v9i1.367&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:Ella Kay244|Ella Kay244]] ([[User talk:Ella Kay244|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ella Kay244|contribs]]) 03:49, 25 August 2026 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 2-level --&gt;
# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve.
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
# The scenario and image could be more relevant to the topic (MHFA)
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# Address an international rather than Australian audience (even though MHFA was developed in Australia)
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios)
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Promising development
# Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic
# In particular, focus on the theory and research underlying MHFA training
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts, such as mental health, and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
# Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft.
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is well underway
# What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions)
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&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text
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# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
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&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]].
# Embed obvious links to key words e.g., [[w:Mental health first aid|Mental health first aid]]
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice.
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages
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# Also consider using tables to summarise key information
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# Good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
&lt;!-- Move --&gt;
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the &quot;External links&quot; section
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## One of two external links provided is relevant (Beyond Blue is too Australian-specific; target an international audience)
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Basic but effective
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Brief description about self – consider expanding
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
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&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:07, 7 September 2026 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem
# The main area(s) for potential improvement:
#* use the best psychological theory about the topic e.g., consider
#** mental health literacy
#** bystander effect
#** more detail about the ALGEE action plan
#* quality of written expression
#* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics
&lt;!-- Overall - Edit summaries --&gt;
#* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&amp;diff=2842641&amp;oldid=2841261 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview – Comments... --&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --&gt;
# Engaging scenario or case study
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# Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario
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# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
# The focus on SDT isn't part of the title or sub-title; whilst this may be a useful theory, the chapter shouldn't be narrowed to focus only on SDT
# Clarity of written expression can be improved
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are reasonably good
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., FQ3 - what impacts and necessities?)
## being more broad (i.e., FQ4 - why is the focus specifically on SDT and not other theoretical models or perspectives?)
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&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement
#* Use the best psychological theory about the topic e.g., consider
#** mental health literacy
#** bystander effect
#** more detail about the ALGEE action plan
#* The use of SDT for MHFA is promising but speculative; it isn't supported by research evidence
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Reasonably good depth is provided about key theory(ies)
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# Insufficient use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information
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# Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
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&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Good review of relevant research
# Useful establishment of the prevalence and importance of mental health problems
# Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Reasonably good [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
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# Reasonably good integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research
# Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
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# Good summary and conclusion
# Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
&lt;!-- Conclusion – Key points --&gt;
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# The focus questions are somewhat addressed
# Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly
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## The quality of written expression is good, with moderate areas for improvement to bring closer to a professional standard
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# Layout
## The chapter structure is underdeveloped
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)]
## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense
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# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Captions should rovide more relevant detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Add captions
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### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
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# Citations use good [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)]
## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
/## Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:55, 26 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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International championship boxing match between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin on 23 December 1889 in Bruges, Belgium.

==Overview==
On 23 December 1889 a championship boxing match in Bruges ended with cheating on the British side: British Jim Smith was losing, so his supporters entered the ring, took advantage of Smith's holding Australian Frank Slavin and beat him up, using fists, sticks, &quot;knuckle-dusters,&quot; &quot;life preservers&quot; and boots. The referee called it a draw to prevent Slavin from being killed and then fled. The ''Cork Constitution'' called it &quot;the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Abington.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&amp;page=7&amp;article=099&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;

A knuckle-duster was &quot;A metal instrument made to cover the knuckles,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Knuckle-duster, ''N.''”  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP,  December 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/6130372797.&lt;/ref&gt; like brass knuckles, and a life preserver was &quot;A stick or truncheon weighted at one end&quot; with lead.&lt;ref&gt;“Life-preserver, ''N.''”  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP,  September 2026, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1055046410.&lt;/ref&gt;

One meeting of the boxing-oriented London Pelican Club was held almost immediately. Then a series of meetings following an investigation occurred in the first week of January (the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|Pelican Club meetings]] referred to below).

Slavin followed this fight with a challenge for American John L. Sullivan, saying he would fight in America or Australia, but not in a private venue in England.

Many, many newspapers covered this fight and the reaction to it in the boxing community. Copy-and-paste journalism and the lack of copyright laws means that many of the stories are all or in part identical to others, so no attempt has been made to offer complete coverage.

==Logistics==
* 23 December 1889, 8:00 a.m.
* Stakes: £1,000
==Related Events==
* [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|Pelican Club Meetings about the Smith-Slavin match]]
* the &quot;[[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]&quot; 
==Who Was Present==
# [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Kim Montagu, Viscount Mandeville]]
# Jem Smith, British boxer
# Frank Slavin, Australian boxer
# Lord Rosslyn
# Sir M. Sandys
# Mr. G. Abington Baird, Smith's manager? and horseman (see description in Anthology)
==Entertainment==

==Anthology==

=== Reynolds's Newspaper ===
On Sunday, 29 December 1899, Reynolds's Newspaper:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The Great Prize Fight. £1,000 in Stakes. Brutal Scenes in the Ring.&quot; Reynolds's Newspaper 29 December 1889, Sunday: 1 [of 

The fight between Slavin and Smith took place on Monday morning upon private property in the outskirts of Bruges. Various spots, both at home and abroad, were from time to time named as the possible battle-field, but finally it became known to a certain select few that an English gentleman, Mr. Atkinson-Grimshaw, residing near Bruges, had placed his grounds at the disposal of the combatants. The host is a well-known breeder of fowls; and he certainly did not expect the quality of fighting cock which responded to his invitation. The ground was encircled by large trees, which secured the utmost privacy. About forty persons assembled at the ring-side, including Viscount Royston, Viscount Mandeville, Mr. Abington, Mr. Harris, Mr. W. Riley, Mr. P. Kotchie, Mr. Ike White, the Hon. M. Sandys, Mr E. Bayley, Mr. C. Parsons, Mr. J. Kilby, Mr. C. Morton, and other well-known &quot;sports.&quot;

Smith was dressed first, and had to wait a few minutes for Slavin. The Englishman appeared in white flannel drawers, white socks, and lace-up boots; while the Australian wore black drawers, blue socks, and lace-up boots. Harper and Baldock were seconds, Howes bottle holder, and Mr. Fleming umpire for Smith; Cosnett and Bob Kirby, Mr. Taylor, and Mr. W. Riley acting in similar capacities for Slavin. Mr. Joe Vesey officiated as referee and Mr. Calder as time-keeper. The men were in the ring at 8.25, and ten minutes later the fight began. After the first two rounds everything went in favour of Slavin, who in the third round knocked Smith clean off his legs with a terrific right-hander. He repeated this operation four or five times subsequently and surprised many of the spectators by the determined way in which he fought. In the thirteenth round he doubled Smith up with a fearful blow under the left ribs, and the Englishman's friends, seeing that Smith was almost beaten, raised a cry of &quot;Police!&quot; Smith was hurried from the ring; but Slavin and his friends refused to budge, and, after &quot;Time&quot; had been called, they claimed the fight. The referee, who appeared afraid to give a just decision, was surrounded by partisans of Smith, who had meanwhile come back, and eventually ordered the fight to proceed. Prior to this Slavin had been repeatedly kicked on the legs and hit on the body and head with sticks and knuckle-dusters. These gross and cowardly outrages were committed in Smith's corner, where all the fighting took place from start to finish. The next round, the fourteenth, was the last. Slavin fought in a most determined fashion, and when he was punishing Smith heavily, the latter caught the Australian round the waist and held him on to the ropes, whilst the ruffians standing around beat and kicked him in a most cowardly fashion. Amid cries of foul, the pair fell to the ground, and, on the men taking their corners, the referee said he would act no longer, as it was perfectly clear Slavin was not to have fair play. This created immense excitement, during which the referee declared the light a draw, and, crossing to Slavin, said, &quot;I do not want to stay here to see you killed.&quot; Afterwards the roughs tried to get at Slavin, who, however, managed to hide in a barn. Later on he went with a few of his friends to Bruges, where he caught the train for Ostend, and came over to Dover, thence proceeding to Margate. Smith and his friends were left behind at Bruges.

Round 1. — Slavin stood over Smith with a longer reach. Both sparred cantiously at the opening, Slavin at length leading off and landing heavily on Smith's chest, jumping back out of danger. Sparring again Slavin landed full on Smith's mouth. Heavy in-fighting followed, the men closing and falling together. When Slavin rose it was seen that he was bleeding from the mouth. Time, 1min. 30sec.

Round 2. — Slavin fought Smith right into his own corner. There was a disgraceful scrimmage there among Smith's friends, Slavin being badly used. Both men fell together. Time, 15sec. Smith's party shouted out that their man had been spiked by Slavin's boots. The referee, thus appealed to, declared that the men had spiked each other.

Round 3. — Smith showed to better advantage in this round, getting home both right and left twice in quick succession on the Australian's body. Sharp close in-fighting followed, Smith going down before a terrific right-hander. (First knock-down blow to Slavin.)

Round 4. — Both men were blowing when they came up for this round. The fighting was again fast and furious, Smith at length cross-buttocking Slavin. The Englishman, however, did not fall on him.

Round 5. — A light round, Smith going down before a light blow. Time, 11sec.

Round 6. — Slavin came up very determined, and forced the fighting at a great pace. He drove Smith all over the ring, landing with his right a heavy blow over the right eye. Smith went down bleeding freely from a gash on the forehead.

Round 7. — Smith came up stronger and did some of the forcing work, beating Slavin for a moment on to the ropes. While in this position one of the crowd of roughs deliberately kicked the Australian, who, however, took no notice of the cowardly attack. Both the combatants got away from the ropes and fought to the middle of the ring, where Smith slipped, and both were taken to their corners.

Round 8. — Slavin did the opening work in this round, driving Smith round the ring and finally into his corner, where, as usual, his friends were ready to protect him. Smith came out again, when Slavin landed heavily with right and left, and Smith sought the ground.

Round — 9 There were heavy exchanges from the outset, Slavin giving his man no rest, and driving him back into his corner. While there one of the mob struck Slavin on the head a violent blow. Time, 1min.

Round 10. — This was a far more sportsmanlike round. Smith stood up well in the centre of the ring, and fought it out without the assistance of his friends. There was hard fighting from first to last of a close order, both getting home some terrific body blows. Both fell together.

Round 11. — Smith looked tired and led off feebly while Slavin returned with right and left on the head, cutting open the Englishman's cheek on the left side. Smith landed his left again, Smith countering heavily. Smith then rushed upon the Australian, who met him with a severe blow on the mouth, and then sent him down with a terrific right-hander.

Round 12. — The disturbances at the ring had now become so unbearable that the referee cautioned the seconds to keep to their corners, and not to interfere with the principals during the progress of the round. The round was of the cautious order, Smith finally being sent to grass again from a heavy right-hand blow on the jaw. Time, 1min. 30sec.

Round 13. — Slavin again did all the leading, fighting the Englishman round the ring, and forcing him into his corner. There were some heavy exehanges, Smith's friends again assisting their man by hitting freely at Slavin.

Round 14 and last. — Just a second before &quot;Time&quot; was called, Slavin, remarking on the treatment he had received, said, &quot;Are you Englishmen, boys?&quot; This was received with derisive shouts from Smith's party, and then, in an instant, a cry of &quot;Police&quot; was raised. The whole of the Smith party instantly decamped, hurrying their man along with them. Slavin, however, declined to stir, and his friends shouted that it was only a ruse to stop the fight. After a time the Smith  party returned, and Slavin then said to Baldock, the most prominent of Jem Smith's seconds, &quot;Why don't you give me fair play?&quot; Slavin's seconds claimed the fight, but the referee ordered them to fight on. The tactics of the Englishman's supporters were now very evident, but Slavin, who was only anxious to have the fight out to an end, advanced into the  centre of the ring, and again beat the Englishman back into his own corner. A scrimmage ensued, both men landing heavily, and the mob in Smith's corner then closed upon Slavin, who was again kicked and struck. The Australian, however, paid no attention to anyone except Smith, and he finished up the round by throwing him heavily. The referee then said, &quot;I shall refuse to act any longer. This man&quot; — pointing  to Slavin — &quot;can't have fair play. I declare it a draw.&quot; Smith seemed well at the finish, and Slavin was certainly full of fight and disgusted at having been robbed of victory by the cowardly attacks of roughs. The Australian had fought in the fairest and most plucky manner throughout, forcing the Englishman back into his corner in nearly every round, and keeping him there.

Here the fight came to an end, the referee exclaiming, &quot;I shall refuse to act any longer. I shall declare it a draw.&quot; There was considerable surprise among Slavin and his supporters, and the Australian said, &quot;I  came 16,000 miles to win, and why don't you give a man a chance?&quot; After some little delay the company dispersed. The time at the end of the fight was eight minutes to nine.

Mr. Cecil Raleigh, hon. secretary of the Pelican Club, 21, Denman-street W., writes as follows:-  &quot;  As an impression prevails that the Smith and Slavin  fight was arranged under the patronage of this club, I  should esteem it a favoar if you would allow me to  state emphatically that the Pelican Club gave no coun-  teuance to the affair in any way whatever, and had  nothing to do with it.&quot;  Diracily the news became known in London the  greatest indignation prevailed in all the clubs at the  dastardly way in which Slaven had been treated.  Subsequently some forty or fifty gentlemen proceeded  to the Pelican to demand the instant and public  repudiation on the part of the committee wit any  official cognizance of the arrangements for the fight,  and also for the summry punishment of those who  had dragged prize fighting down to the lowest depth  of degradation and blackguardism. In accoridance  with these demands, and in full sympathy with them,  those members present, conjointly with the proprietor,  immediately sent out telegrams summoning an extra-  ordinary meeting of the committee.  That Slavin has Inow a right to the title (empty  though it be) of &quot; champion &quot; is clearly supported by  the 24th rule of the Prize Ring, which runs as fol-  lows:-&quot; Any pugilist voluntarily quitting the ring  previous to the deliberate judgment of the referee  being obtained shall ha deemed to have lost the fight.&quot;  It seemed a pity that Mr. Vasey should not have had  sufficient support to enforce what was uadoubtedly  the judgment of all impartial speetators of round  thirteen.  AIuRIVAL OF' BLAVIN AT MARGATE.  Slavin arrived at Margate at half-past seven on  Monday evening, and met with a flattering reception.  During his training in the town he had become a  general favourite with those who took an interest in  the event. Sympathy was almost wholly on his side,  and during the day news was anxiously awaited. At  the station he was met by a four-in-hand and the town  band, and proceeded to the Elephant H1ptel, the band  playing, &quot; See the conquering hero comes.&quot; Along  the Parade, on which was assembled a large crowd of  polhe wasloadly cheered. At the Elephant Hotel.  there wsa large crowd of people, and the reception  was most enthusiastic. Slavin briefly addressed the  gathering, . thankin them for the reception  Ea Q4 :ocosyd,. 'la iatentia5 he mids when  I  he left England was to win the championship  or lose it fairly, and he was sorry that the fight had  ended in such a fiasco. Inside the hotel the scene was  very exciting, and Slavin received the hearty con-  gratulations of his friends at the slight punishment he  had received. He then left for the Nayland Raek  Hotel, his quarters, and on the road was loudly cheered.  Upon arriving at the hotel, Slavin retired, accom-  panied by his second, Joss Comaett, after which the  correspondent of the Press Association was introduced  to him. The first question put was, &quot; Well, Slavin,  how have you fared ?&quot; &quot; Very badly,&quot; responded the  Australian. &quot;As far as the roughs were concerned,  I never witnessed anything more disgraoeful in all my  experience. My treatment at their hands has been  most creel, and nothing I could saty would sufficiently  emphasize what I mean. I am very pleased indeed at  the reception I received on my arrival at Margate.  Nothing eould have been more enthusiastic. You see  what punishment I have received. It is not from  Smith so much as it is from the ??  Cosnett: Smith did not bit him any more than I am  hitting you. The conduct of the rougls round the ring  was shameful. Slavin: The treatment I have received  from them was most unmanly. I am sure the roughs  never meant it to be fought out. They intended to  have a draw if they found their man losing. Several  of Smith's backers, including two ?? noble.  men, were disgusted, and threw his colours away and  put mine on, as a protest, I suppose, against the treat.  ment I had received. To speak the truth, I would not  like to see a dog treated as I was. All I am anxious  for now is to meet Sullivan for the championship of  the world for X100 to £1,000, or anyone else. I am  willing and ready to meet and fight anybody for the  championship before I go back to Australia.  THE FELICAN CLUB AND 'THE FIGHT.  A meeting was held at the Pelican Club at one o'clock  on Tuesday afternoon. At the conclusion the hon.  secretary, Mr. Cecil Raleigh, furnished the following  report *-&quot;In yiew of the reports of what had occurred  at the Smith and 81aJ|n fight a special meetiug of &quot;the  ciofnmittdo'6f'thl Pelidlts Club was instantly convened  by telegraph for this afternoon. There was a large  attendance of the committee, among those present  being the Marquis of Queensbury, Mr. Jobu Oorlett,  and other well-known sportsmen. It was unanimously  determined to address a letter of sympathy to  Frank Slavin, expressing the appreciation of the com-  mittee of the courage he exhibited, in face of the most  blackguardly conduct which ever disgraced the ring  side. The committee added that they fully recognised  that he had indisputably established his claim to the  championship of England. and they further informed  him of their intention to present to him a belt and  purse in recognition of his pluck. The committee then  determined that Mr. John Fleming, late manager to  Jem Smith, who had hitherto acted as master of the  ceremonies at the Pelican Club, should be suspended  from his office until such time as he should afford an  explanation of his connection with the Smith and  Slavin fight, which explanation would be laid before  a general meeting of the members of the club on Tues-  day, January 6th. The indignation of the members of  the club knows no hounds, and every effort will be  made to discover who were the real instigators of the  disgraceful business.&quot;  It is most likely that the belt and purse will be pre-  sented to Slavin on January 14th, when the club move  into their new uronsesee.  The following letter has been addressed by the  pugilist, F. P. Slavin, to the Pelican Club-  &quot; In reply to your very kind and encouraging letter,  adeept my warmest thanks for the high compliment you  are about to pay me in presenting me with a belt, called  the Champion of England belt. You may rely it will  be my daty, as it has been all through my career, to  do my best to win any contest I may enter into ini' fair  and manly ?? thanking you, I am, sir,  yours truly, &quot;F. P. SLAVIN.  &quot;Nayland Rock Hotel, Margate.&quot;  . TSR. FLEINGIS STAT'aIeNT.  Mr. Fleming states that the fight was arranged  before the boxing match with Jackson. He went over to  Belgium and selected the ground. As regards the rough  element present, lie did not know one of the men. No  doubt they vwere engaged by some friends of Smith. The  only persons who went across with them were four or  five gentlemen. All connection between Smith and  him had ceased, as he felt that he could not act in ant  way for Smith after what had occurred. Every fight  that he had previously had the management of had  always been brought off without the intrusion of any  of the rough element at the ring side. He took no  part in the proceedings, being merely there as a  spectator, and he lied not seen hmith since the fight.  Hie did not thick that be should ha ve any difficulty in  proving that he had no connection with the disgraceful  proceedings at the ring side.  THE THELIMINARY ARe ANGEMENTS.  The preliminaries of the match will, perhaps, be  interesting. When, in 1885, Jem Smith, who had made  a name among Engl;sh heavy-weight boxers, met and  defeated Jack Davis, of Birmingham, there was a sign  of a revival of pugilism in this country. This was  increased when Smith fought Alf Greenfiold, and,  although the battle ended in a draw, it was not long  before the &quot; lost art&quot; Was freely discussed, and there  was every appearance of the revival of the prize-ring.  Smith, as will be well remembered, fought a memorable  battle with Jake Kilrain, who came from America to  wrest the championship honour from the Englishman.  John L. Sullivan, the Boston Boy, soon followed, and,  although he failed to beat Charles Mitchell, his claim to  the title of champion of the world was made good lust  July, when be met and defeated Kilrain. Then came new  stars in the firmament of boxers, but glove-fighting  had almost extinguished the ';old style.&quot; Prominent  among the late arrivals were APeter Jackson, a  coloured man, and Frank P. Slavin, both bailing from  Australia. Their records were of the highest calibre,  Slavin having been successful in all the nineteen con-  tests in which he bad engaged, either with gloves or  with hare hands, while Jacskson's was but little less  noticeable. The latter, however, carried all before him  in America, and then sought fresh fields in England.  Only a few weeks ago he vanquished Jem Smith in a  couple of rounds. Slavin arrived in London a week  prior to Jackson, and, after a lengthy wait, lie was ac-  commodated with a match. 'No one but W. Goode  cared to meet him with the gloves, and Goode was easily  disposed of. After signing articles to fight Jem Smith  under prize ring -rules, both inen went into training,  Smith at Newmarket, umler the care of Jem Howes,  and Slavin at Maigate, with Fred Syines as mentor.  The most difficult part of the arrangements had yet  to be settled, and it was not without great trouble  that a battle ground could be selected which afforded  facilities for the accommodation of a party of sports-  men to witness the contest. At length a point was  pitched upon near the Belgian capital, easy of access  and fairly safe from interference. Another difficulty  now arose over the appointment of a referee, and no  less than five good men were named, all of whom were  in turn objected to by Smith. The possibility of this  having been foreseen it had been stated in the articles  that the two parties failing to agree, the stakeholder,  Mr. .0. W. Blacklock, should appoint that, official.  This he did with satisfaction to both parties, naming  Mr. J. Vesey, a well-known sporting man, to act.  The stakes had then been increased to £500 a side.  There is a great difference in the physique of the  two men. Slavin stands 6ft. lin., and scales in con-  dition thirteen stone, is a very muscular athlete, and  particularly quick on his legs; while Smith is of the  sturdy order, and is only 5ft. 81in. high. His weight  when fit is 12st. 10lbs., and although his muscles are  very massively developed, giving proof of great  strength, he has not the quick hitting power of the  Australian.  PERFORMANCES 0o THE MEN.  Frank P. Slavin, the champion of Australia, was  born on January 27, 1863, at Maitland, N.S.W. He  stands 6ft. lin. in his stockings, and in.condition scales  13st. 51b, or 13st. 61b. Shavin served his time or  apprenticeship to a coaohbuilder and blacksmith, and  first came out as a pedestrian. After winning several  competitions as an amateur, Slavin's first 'fight was  with knuckles against M. Power for £50 a-side, and he  won after seven rounds, lasting thirteen minutes. He  then beat Jom Burke with two-ounse gloves for £200  a-side and the championship of Queensland, winning  in three rounds. This was in December, 1885, and in  1886 he went to Sydney and entered into an engage.  ment with Larry Foley. Here Slavin met Taylor, a  pupil of Jackson's, for a purse with small gloves, and  stopped him in two rounds. He was then matched with  a big follow named Bligh for £-10 a.side, and beat him  in one round. After a rest of two months articles  were signed for him and Mike Dooley to box for £100  a-side, and Slavin won in nine rounds. He next met  Mike Costello, an American, a' good man, and after a  big battle in iydney, lasting two hours and a half, a  draw was the result. Another match was made for  £400, and £50 a-side was posted, but Co.tello forfeited  this. Afterwards Slavin's backers matched him for  £25 a-side to stop Costello in six rounds, but the latter  is very clever and tricky, and lasted the time. Sub.  sequently Slavic journeyed to Sydney, and finding Mike  there, challenged him again. The result of this was a  match for £100 a-side with skin glovet, which Slavin  wones a  in  twnt cmpeinte.vian at this trimen Shard nv  amoent of backing, and issued a challenge to fight  Peter Jackson for £250 a-side and the championship.  Jackson's party wanted a match with gloves for a  purse. They could not, however, come to terms. In  January last year the Australian made a. trip to New  Zealand. The first man put up was Snath, who was  backed to stand four rounds, but he bad had enough at  the end of the first. In Dunedin Slavin beat abig fellow  in four minutes, and journeyed a long distance to fight  Laing,. the champion. The pair were, matched for  £200a~sdeandfougt wth wo-unce gloves at  Wanganni, Laing failingg ttoiomeupat othe end of the  fifth round. After this Slavin returned to Melbourne,  and met Jack Bnrke, but after Slavin had had all the  best of it, the contest was declared a draw. Mike  Dooly was now in Sydney, and issued a6 challenge to  him. This led to a match for £200 with small gloves,  which ended in Mike being knocked out in 2min.  40s9ec. Slavin retuirned 'to Melbourene, and fought  Burke, Slavin szndertaking to biop him in six rounds;  £,200 a-side was pust up and the two fought with six-  ounce gloves, and agreed to divide the gate, and Burke  was beaten in the middle of the third round. Previous  to this Billy Farnan, the conqueror of Jackson and  Slavin, fought for £2200, with the result that the iatter  added another winning bracket to his name, Farnan  failing to answer to the call of time in the third round.  He then received forfeit from Woolf Bendoff. An  easy victory over Bill Buck in two rounds followed.  He then came to England, and his late victory in his  glove fight with the plucky young Englishman, W.  Goode, must still be fresh in the memory of our  readers.  Jem Smith was born in Whitecross-street on January  21, ibli3. He stands 5f t. Sjun. high, and weighs in  condition 12st. 10ib. Round the chest he measures  4'kin.; waist, 36Qin.; hips, 41in. ; thigh, 2din.; calf,  16tin.; biceps, Iblin. For' some years he' WAS em-  ployed in cue of the metropolitan timber yards, bet  developing a tasie for boxing after one or two rough.  and-tumbles with his fellow-workmen, he was taken in  hand by Jack Knifton. (&quot; eighty-one tanner &quot;) and later  by Mr. P. Grimm, of thee Central Club. His first  success was in a competition at the Griffin, Shoreditch.  Later on he beat Snowey, of Holloway, and was then  matched to box Harry Arnold with gloves for a £10  purse. Theo afai waad looked upon as a good ??  for Smith, but it took him nearly an hour to polish  off this last opponent, though he bad slightly the best  of the encounter from start to finish. Smith's next  engagement was with Woolf Bendoff to box to a finish  with gloves for £25 a-side, which came off at an East-end  club. In this contest Smith injured his right arm, but,  nevertheless, proved successful at the end of twelve  rounds. Smith also won Tom Symonds's A-1-comers'  Competition on February 26, 1885, at Bill Richardson's,  defeating Sugar Goodson, Jack Wannop (the wrestler),  and Tom Longer. Smith's next battle was with Jack  Davis, for £100 a sideI and the championship, on the  turf, and came off on the borders of Surrey and Sussex  on Wednesday, December 17. In all six rounds were  fought, occupying 7min. 56sec., Davis being knocked  out of time with a swinging right-hander. He subse-  quently met Alf Greenfield, of Birmingham, for X300,  at Maisons-Laffite, near Paris, on Tuesday, February  16, 1886. Thirteen rounds were fought, mostly  in Smith's favour, and the men fell, where.  upon a cry of foul was raised by Greenfield's party,  and a crowd of roughs broke into the ring, stopping the  fight. The referee (Jem Mace), at the request of the  principal backers of the men, agreed to decide the  battle' a draw. Soon after Smith was matched to fight  Knifton, the &quot; eighty-one-tonner &quot; as he is called. This  proved a fiasco. The memorable struggle between  Smith and Kilrain, brought off on an island in the  Seine, came next, darkness putting an end tothe affair,  which also resulted in a draw, after the men had faced  each other for 106 rounds, on December 19th, 1887.  This brings us to his ten-round glove contest with Jack  Waunop, Smith laying £250 to £e200, and winning  easily. Af ter which, as all the pugilistic world knows,  Smith was easily defeated by the coloured champion,  Peter Jackson, in a glove fight at the Pelican Club, the  last named w inning on a foul '''by''' Smith, who was at  the same time well beaten. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== The People ===

On Sunday, 29 December 1899, the ''People''&lt;blockquote&gt;Disgraceful Scenes. Expressions of indignation.

The prize fight between Jem Smith, who poses as the fistic &quot;champion of England,&quot; and Frank Slavin, the Australian champion, took place early on Monday, and resulted in perhaps the most disgraceful scene ever witnessed in connection with the history of the prize ring. Various spots, both at home and abroad, were from time to time named as the possible battle-field, but finally it became known to a certain select few that an English gentleman, Mr. Atkinson-Grimshaw, residing near Bruges, Belgium, had placed his grounds at the disposal of the combatants. In London it soon became known that the principal supporters of the Englishman had caused a number of Birmingham ruffians to be hired for the purpose of making a &quot;strong corner.&quot; The betting changed directly to short odds on the Australian, and also evens, while  offers of 30 to 20 that &quot;Smith did not lose&quot; proclaimed that some ugly and disreputable manœuvres would be attempted. The ring was pitched on a splendid piece of turf — the lawn tennis ground, in fact — and about forty persons assembled, including Viscount Royston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscount Mandeville]], Mr. Abington, Mr. Harris, Mr. W. Riley, Mr. F. Kotchie, Mr. Ike White, the Hon. M. Sandys, Mr. E. Bayley, Mr. C. Parsons, Mr. J. Kilby, Mr. C. Morton, and other well-known &quot;sports.&quot; Smith was dressed first, and and [sic] had to wait a few minutes for Slavin. The Englishman appeared in white flannel drawers, white socks, and lace-up boots, while the Australian wore black drawers, blue socks, and lace-up boots. Harper and Baldock were seconds, Howes bottle-holder, and Mr. Fleming umpire for Smith; Cosnett and Bob Kirby, Mr. Taylor, and Mr. W. Riley acting in similar capacities for Slavin. Mr. Joe Vezey officiated as referee and Mr. Calder as timekeeper.

The Fight.

The men were in the ring at 8.25, and ten minutes later the fight began. After the first two rounds everything went in favour of Slavin, who in the third round knocked Smith clean off his legs with a terrific right-hander. He repeated this operation four or five times subsequently, and surprised many of the spectators by the determined way in which he fought. Smith looked very serious on coming up for the fourth round. At this time a suspicious movement was noticeable among the brigade of Birmingham ruffians, and one of them came round to the colonial's corner with no good intentions. Had it not been that Mick Taylor and Frank Hinde kept zealous guard over all the water provided for the use of the combatants, there is no knowing what fiendish trick might not have been perpetrated. Getting to close quarters, Slavin delivered heavily right and left on Smith's body, the latter being very slow in responding to this vigorous attack. He had, however, other assistants, for a vile ruffian from over the ropes deliberately struck Slavin a blow on the head. A shout was at once raised, but when charged with it the rascal denied that he had done anything. A scuffle ensued between the men, and to escape from the difficulty Smith cross-buttocked his opponent, who fell. In the fifth and sixth rounds Slavin again brought Smith to the ground, and made a nasty gash on his forehead. All this time the most horrible language proceeded from Smith's corner. In the seventh round a desperate rally took place, during which Smith fought Slavin on to the ropes, and there held him. Here was a grand opportunity for the miscreants, who did not fail to make use of it. One of them kicked Slavin repeatedly, and others beat him about the head, knuckle-dusters and life preservers being used. Slavin during the progress of the eighth round further received a couple of smart blows from a stick which a cowardly ruffian carried. Taking not the smallest notice of these interruptions Slavin pursued his legitimate opponent, both Smith's seconds following him about and jeering in his face. The referee entered the ring, and cautioned the seconds to move away. This had very little effect, and in the midst of half-arm fighting of a very severe kind, Smith was one more brought to the ground. In the ninth round the Australian again ventured into Smith's corner, and the fighting brought him close to the ropes. The  Birmingham mob here set about Slavin with great brutality, kicking him and punching him on all parts of the body. Getting away from the ropes Slavin let go the right, and, reaching Smith's mouth, caused the blood to spring forth profusely, bringing the Englishman to grass. The tenth and eleventh rounds were not quite so exciting, but in the twelfth Slavin drove his right with terrific force on to Smith's chin, knocking him clean off his legs. In the thirteenth round the Australian doubled Smith up with a fearful blow under the left ribs, and the Englishman's friends, seeing that Smith was almost beaten, raised a cry of &quot; Police!&quot; Smith was hurried from the ring, but Slavin and his friends refused to budge, and after &quot;Time&quot; had been called they claimed the fight. The referee, who appeared afraid to give a just decision, was surrounded by partisans of Smith, who had meanwhile come back, and eventually ordered the fight to proceed. The next round, the fourteenth, was the last. Slavin fought in a most determined fashion, and when he was punishing Smith heavily, the latter caught the Australian round the waist and held him on to the ropes, whilst the ruffians standing round beat and kicked him in a most cowardly fashion. Amid cries of &quot;Foul,&quot; the pair fell to the ground, and, on the men taking their corners, the referee said he would act no longer, as it was perfectly clear Slavin was not to have fair play. This created immense excitement, during which the referee declared the fight a draw, and, crossing to Slavin, said, &quot;I do not want to stay here to see you killed.&quot; Afterwards the roughs tried to get at Slavin, who, however, managed to hide in a barn. Later on he went with a few of his friends to Bruges, where he caught the train for Ostend, and came over to Dover, thence proceeding to  Margate.

Slavin's Opinion of his Treatment.

The following conversation took place during an interview with Slavin, a few hours after the fight:— Did you expect any trouble at the ring  side? — Slavin: Yes, I was prepared for that, as I was constantly receiving letters of a threatening nature, and though these things as a rule are of no account, I had reason to believe there was some truth this time. Besides, I had not forgotten the affair at Astley's Theatre. — Do you feel any effects of the fighting? — Slavin: The fighting? I feel nothing of what I got from any one in the ring; it's what those beauties gave me outside. The only time Smith hit me in anything like form was on the jaw. — Why did you persist in going to his corner? — Slavin: I wanted to get the affair over and enjoy my Christmas dinner, and I knew if the fighting was left to Smith I should want it served in the ring. — Of course you heard a mob was got together for Smith? — Slavin: Yes, I knew all about that, but I relied on British fair play, and expected the referee to do his duty. Directly I got in the ring I saw what the game was, and knew my only chance was to knock Smith out. — What do you think of Smith? — Well, I think so much of him that I'll bet him £200 I stop him in six rounds, but we must have no more private shows. I've had enough of that business. — l suppose you have a poor opinion of English fair play? — Slavin: I have been treated like a prince generally, but I can see the fighting men are easily led astray, and I expected trouble directly Smith objected to a referee. If we served an Englishman in the same manner in Australia we should get drummed out of the town, and rightly too. — What are your plans for the future? Well, I shall stay in England some time and challenge Sullivan, and you might as well cable it over to America for me. — With the gloves? — No. I want to fight him with the knuckles. I think I should get fair play out there.

Indignation in London.

Directly the news became known in London the greatest indignation prevailed in all the West-end, [Col. 4c–5a] clubs at the dastardly way in which Slavin had been treated. Subsequently some forty or fifty gentlemen proceeded to the Pelican to demand the instant and public repudiation on the part of the committee with any official cognisance of the arrangements for the fight, and also for the summary punishment of those who had dragged dowr [sic] a manly pastime to the lowest depth of degradation and blackguardism. In accordance with these demands, and in full sympathy with them, those members present, conjointly with the proprietor, immediately sent out telegrams summoning an extraordinary meeting of the cornmittee.

The Pelican Club Meeting.

At the special meeting of the committee of the Pelican Club it was unanimously determined to address a letter of sympathy to Slavin, expressing the appreciation of the committee of &quot;the courage he exhibited in face of the most blackguardly conduct which ever disgraced the ring side.[&quot;] The committee added that they fully recognised that he had indisputably established his claim to the championship of England, and they further informed him of their intention to present to him a belt and purse in recognition of his pluck[.] The committee determined that Mr. John Fleming, late manager to Jem Smith, who had hitherto acted as manager of the ceremonies at the Pelican Club, should be suspended from his office until such time as he should afford an explanation of his connection with the Smith and Slavin fight, which explanation would be laid before a general meeting of the members of the Pelican Club on Tuesday, January 7th. It is most likely that the belt and purse will be presented to Slavin on January 14th, when the club will move into their new premises. While Salvin was at the Stock Exchange on Tuesday, a subscription in his interest was started, and £110 was quickly subscribed.

Slavin Challenges J. L. Sullivan.

Frank Slavin, the champion of Australia, is prepared to meet John L. Sullivan, under London prize ring rules, for £500 or £1,000 a side and the championship of the world. Slavin has lodged a sum of £100, and will contest the title with Sullivan in either America or Australia in six months from signing articles. We have cabled this challenge to Mr. R. K. Fox, of New York, and the money lodged with him or the editor of the ''Sportsman'' will lead to a match.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Smith-Slavin Fight.&quot; ''The People'' 29 December 1889, Sunday: 16 [of 16], Col. 4a–5a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000729%2F18891229&amp;page=16&amp;article=150&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== The ''Sportsman'' ===
On Monday, 30 December 1889, the ''Sportsman'' printed a list of people and organizations that had contributed to the &quot;testimonial&quot; fund for Slavin as well as some letters to the editor about the Slavin-Smith match:&lt;blockquote&gt;
A committee meeting of the above was held on Saturday afternoon, Mr W. J. Innes in the chair.  There were also present Mr W. Riley, Mr Fred H. [Gala?], Mr C. Parsons, Mr A. Butler, Mr M. J. Harrow (Margate), Mr Ike White, Mr E. C. Irish, and Mr G. T. Dunning (hon. sec. and treasurer). 

The chairman read a letter from Mr John Lees, regretting his inability to attend owing to illness, whilst the remaining committeeman, Mr E. W. Bayly, was absent in Paris.

The appointment of the hon. sec. and treasurer was confirmed by the committee, and after some discussion it was decided to close the subscription-list on Monday, January 20, and to present the proceeds to Slavin at the Cambridge Music Hall, Bishopsgate-street, on a day to be named. Other business of minor importance was transacted, and after the next committee meeting had been fixed for Wednesday, January 15, the meeting closed with a vote of thanks to the chairman. Additional subscriptions to the fund, which now reaches 300''l''., will be found appended [names set as unordered list to save space, £ ''s.'' ''d.'']

* Lord Mandeville  2 2 0
* Lord Royston  2 2 0
* Lord James Douglas  2 2 0
* Hon. Michael Sandys  2 2 0
* Fred Kotchie  2 2 0
* Mr Ike White  2 2 0
* Mr W. Riley  2 2 0
* Mr C. Parsons  2 2 0
* Mr J. Kilby  2 2 0
* Mr Frank Hinde  2 2 0
* Proprietors of The Sportsman  2 2 0
* Mr. J. Purdey  2 2 0
* Mr. E. W. Bayly  2 2 0
* Messrs H. A. Domby and Son  2 2 0
* &quot;Caption Coe&quot;  2 2 0
* Mr C. W. Bulpett  2 2 0
* Mr P. W. Carr  2 2 0
* Mr W. Morley Pegge  2 2 0
* W. D. S.  2 2 0
* J. E. S.  2 2 0
* Mr W. H. Grenfel  2 2 0
* Mr Quartermaine East  2 2 0
* Mr H. H. Hungerford  2 2 0
* Mr Noel Fenwick  2 2 0
* Sir John Leslie, Bart.  2 2 0
* Mr T. Brinkman  2 0 0
* Mr Calder  1 1 0
* Mr H. W. Hill  1 1 0
* Mr John Young  1 1 0
* Mr D. A. Neilson  1 1 0
* Mr W. Neilson  1 1 0
* Mr Julius Simon  1 1 0
* Mr J. Edge  1 1 0
* Mr H. Marshall  1 1 0
* Mr F. Aynsley  1 1 0
* Col. Hon. Wellesley  1 1 0
* Mr Charles Hawtrey  1 1 0
* Mr W. F. Ashton  1 1 0
* Mr Barratt  1 1 0
* Old Durham Ox  1 0 0
* Sir John Willoughby  1 0 0
* A friend, per C. H. A.  0 10 6
* Mr Ben Giles  0 10 6
* Mr Tom Vale  0 10 6
* [E.?] W.  0 10 6
* Officer  0 10 0
* Per Mr Ike White, Exchange Club:
** S. W.  2 2 0
** Mr G. B. Knight  1 1 0
** Mr A. Powles  1 1 0
** Mr S. Blandford  1 1 0
** T. F. W. C.  1 1 0
** Mr Leo Harward  1 1 0
** Mr J. Harward  1 1 0
** Mr H. Harward  1 1 0
** Mr [Monteagle?] [Moutcagie??]  1 1 0
** Mr C. Orate  0 10 6
** W. G. P.  0 10 6
** H. R. T  0 10 6
** Mr Josiah Smith  0 10 6
** W. H. R.  0 10 6
** Mr R. Wilson  0 5 0
* Per Mr M. J. Harlow, Margate:
** Mr A. H. [Cosi? Coni?]  2 2 0
** Mr J. Thurston  1 1 0
** Mr J. A. Fagg  1 1 0
** Mr F. [Miles?]  1 1 0
** Mr Adolphe [Drineqbeir?]  1 1 0
** Mr Ernest [Drineqbier?]  1 1 0
** Mr Lacy Brown  1 1 0
** Mr Algy Brown  1 1 0
** Mr M. J. Harlow  1 1 0
** An Admirer  1 1 0
** Mr J. W. Robinson  1 1 0
** Mr W. Searles  1 1 0
** Mr J. Smith  1 1 0
** Mr J. Hume  1 1 0
** Mr J. Painter  1 1 0
** A Scotchman  1 1 0
** Mr J. Mundell  0 10 6
** Mr Bob Redman  0 10 6
** Mr G. A. Body  0 10 6
** Mr J. Phipps  0 10 6
** Mr J. Doughty  0 10 6
** Old Fisherman  0 10 6
** Mr Joe Knott  0 10 6
* Per Mr B. J. Angle
** Some mebers of the Stock Exchange  125 0 0
** Hr Henry J. Turner  2 2 0
* Per Mr W. J. Innes:
** Mr Sidney Fry  2 2 0
** Mr W. J. I.  2 2 0
** Mr W. Schlesinger  2 2 0
** Mr Joseph Thompson  2 2 0
** Mr Barney Thompson  2 2 0
** Mr L. Meyers  2 2 0
** Mr W. Shoe  2 2 0
** Mr George Cooper  2 2 0
** Mr J. T. Crossley  2 2 0
** Mr Andy Anderson  2 2 0
** Mr G. M. T.  2 2 0
** Mr F. R.  2 2 0
** Mr W. Bertram  1 1 0
** Mr J. W. Hammon  1 1 0
** Mr Alec Harris  1 1 0
** Mr John Isaacs  1 1 0
** Mr Edward [Dance? Dasce?]  1 1 0
** Mr George Blanchett  1 1 0
** Mr F. [Leleu? Lolou?]  1 1 0
** Mr W. J. R.  1 1 0
** Mr H. C.  1 1 0
** Mr A. A. M.  1 1 0
** Mr D. W. Fowler  0 10 6
* Per Mr F. H. Gale:
** Mr R. Moore  2 2 0
** Mr A. H. Goode  2 2 0
** Mr [B.? E.? R.?] J. G. Goode  2 2 0
** Mr F. H. Gale  2 2 0
** Mr H. Ulph  1 1 0
** Mr J. Hooper  1 1 0
** Mr C. Kittall  1 1 0
** Mr C. Moore  1 1 0
* Per Mr W. Riley:
** Mr Brand (Wiltshire)  2 2 0
** Mr Charles Godfrey  2 2 0
** Mrs Lane (Britannia)  2 2 0
** Mr Sam Adams  2 2 0
** B. and M.  0 7 6
* Per Mr A. Cockburn:
** Mr Richardson  2 2 0
** Mr A. Cox  1 1 0
** Mr Hy. Brackenbury  1 1 0

To the Editor of T&lt;small&gt;HE&lt;/small&gt; S&lt;small&gt;PORTSMAN&lt;/small&gt;.

Sir,— From the evidence of your eye-witness reporter there seems to me the clearest possible case against Smith, Harper, and Baldock — that Smith held Slavin on the ropes while the roughs kicked and &quot;knuckle-dustered&quot; him, that Harper put his knee on Slavin when down, and that Baldock did likewise, and that throughout they advised Smith to stand like a coward under the protection of the savages till the instinct which filled Slavin's manly bosom prompted the honest outburst to Smith, &quot;Come and have a round.&quot; The duty for sportsmen to fulfil with the assistance of their representative journal, is, firstly, to see that Slavin is elected Champion and that he is handsomely recompensed, and that these so-called &quot;seconds&quot; should be properly punished and our splendid timber-yard Champion put in his proper place. The names of those who hired the roughs should also be published. I have spoken to at least fifty patrons of boxing shows, and one and all have made the most positive and determined objection to supporting any entertainment where the three men named above are concerned directly or indirectly. They, by their own stupidity and cupidity, have put the last nail in their own coffin, I hope. With regard to the referee, this individual is decidedly unsatisfactory. He allowed Smith to bolt when the cry of &quot;Police&quot; was raised without disqualifying him in any way, and then put an end to the business by declaring it a draw. Now, if the said referee is not a determined or courageous man, then he acted to the best of his judgment, for he was afraid of personal violence, having literally to escape to London; but on his arrival here, I and numberless others naturally expected some explanation or a reversal of his decision. The whole sporting community are on the tiptoe of excitement, and Mr Vesey in the coolest  possible manner washes his hands of the affair, declining absolutely to expose any opinion. This is rather rough on the public considering that be consented to act as referee of his own free will, and he is no chicken in such matters. He does not tell us whether he is aware that he has the power to reverse a decision given under fear; nor does he say whether he still considers the decision made on the spot a happy one. How was it that no steps were taken to protect the referee? There is no legitimate courage in the Brummagem rough. He is an imposter. With assistance of our excellent so-called Champion, and about another ten, armed with knuckle-dusters, he will doubtless attack Slavin, and if a torrent of filthy, cowardly abuse could kill he would beat Slavin single-handed. One of these gallant gentry actually returned to Birmingham without going to Bruges, being positively afraid to chance crossing the tiny stretch of sea. An American reader will bear me out that had our unsatisfactory referee been under the protection of one single genuine Nebraska &quot;tough,&quot; as they are called out there, he would, without uttering one word of bad language, have cleared out the lot had they attempted violence to his charge. But it would never have come to that, for the sight of a real, genuine armed rough, with determined set features, would have struck terror into the hearts of the pluckless Brum shoddy bully, with the proverbial dull, stupid, animal-like pudding face. As an Englishman I [Col. 1c–2a] positively feel guilty among my American friends when they ask me what about my vaunted British fairplay, and I quite fail to see or understand how &quot;seconds&quot; — no matter, for argument's sake, how dishonest they may be can such fools as to kill the goose which lays their golden eggs. Prize-fighting and boxing are their bread-and-butter, and some of those who accepted the assistance of the roughs in the recent important international fight must have surely prognosticated that trouble and disgrace would follow, and they of all men should have been the last to wantonly risk breaking up one of our favourite English sports. In conclusion, contrast the courage of the two men. Slavin practically fought about six men, not knowing the moment that one well-directed blow from a &quot;duster&quot; might have cost him his life or lost him the fight. Think of his manly appeals to the cowards for a few minutes' fairplay. I only wish they each had to have four rounds singly with him! — Yours, &amp;c.,

A Lover of Boxing.

To the Editor of T&lt;small&gt;HE&lt;/small&gt; S&lt;small&gt;PORTSMAN&lt;/small&gt;.

Sir, — Previous to the late show of ruffianism I was in sympathy with and respected Smith as the Champion, but I am grieved to say that nothing of late years has so thoroughly disgusted me as the ill-treatment which was meted out to Slavin by those who disgrace not only sport but the very name of man. I sincerely hope that Slavin will still continue to think that one of the dearest wishes of the true sportsman of this country is to see fair play. I enclose my mite in the shape of one guinea, and subscribe myself, yours, &amp;c.,

Leicester, December 28. J. Barrett.

To the Editor of T&lt;small&gt;HE&lt;/small&gt; S&lt;small&gt;PORTSMAN&lt;/small&gt;.

Sir, — Herewith I inclose cheque 1''l''. 1''s''. to the Slavin Fund, and hope that his manly and honourable conduct will be well rewarded.

I cannot, however, agree with those who hope &quot;that we have seen the last of prize-fighting,&quot; and other sentiments of the kind. It will be an evil day for England when the fighting instinct dies out from among her sons. No, let us rather hope that the Slavin-Smith ''fiasco'' will be the beginning of a new era, and that for the future fights will not be allowed to take place without proper ring-keepers, as in the days of Spring, Langham, and Bendigo, and that the Championship of England will not be long without a native defender.—Yours, &amp;c.,

J. W. B. C., Junior Carlton Club, December 27.

To the Editor of T&lt;small&gt;HE&lt;/small&gt; S&lt;small&gt;PORTSMAN&lt;/small&gt;. 

Sir, — l beg to inclose you the sum of one guinea, my subscription to the Slavin Fund. I was indeed sorry to read of the outrageous and murderous treatment Slavin received from Smith's supporters, which support was tacitly sought after by Smith not leaving his corner and meeting his man in the centre of the ring, as any Englishman should have done that presumed to call himself &quot;England's Champion.&quot; I feel quite certain that had this outrageous conduct passed away without the strong condemnation it received at all good sporting men's hands in this country, and the hearty and the thoroughly unanimous sympathy expressed for Slavin, the good feeling and perfect bon accord that has existed between the sporting fraternity of the two countries, New and Old England, would soon have ceased to exist. Australians are great stickers to and warm supporters of England and the English, and they will all feel most keenly the slur cast upon &quot;British fair-play and courage.&quot; — Yours, a lover of it, Sydney Galvayne. 

York, December 26. 

To the Editor of T&lt;small&gt;HE&lt;/small&gt; S&lt;small&gt;PORTSMAN&lt;/small&gt;. 

Sir, — Enclosed you will cheque for one guinea as a simple tribute to Slavin, who so squarely held his own, and who should not be looked upon as a stranger in a strange country, but as a cousin Englishman, who deserves support, not only as a true sportsman but also against the fearful ordeal of ruffianism to which he has been subjected. As a lover of fair play believe me, yours faithfully, 

Birmingham, December 27. Tom B. Sharp. 

To the Editor of T&lt;small&gt;HE&lt;/small&gt; S&lt;small&gt;PORTSMAN&lt;/small&gt;. 

Sir, — Please add 9''l.'' 14''s.'' to the list I have already sent you for Slavin testimonial, and oblige, yours, &amp;c., 

I. White.  

Exchange Club, Queen-street, Cheapside, Dec. 28.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Ring. The Slavin Testimonial.&quot; ''The Sportsman'' 30 December 1889, Monday: 4 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001055%2F18891230&amp;page=4&amp;article=020&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;
On 9 January 1890 in part of a much larger partisan report with critiques of the investigative committee, its chair and its results as well as other newspapers printing rumors:&lt;blockquote&gt;JOHN L. SULLIVAN ON ENGLISH FAIR PLAY.&lt;p&gt;

J&lt;small&gt;OHN&lt;/small&gt; L S&lt;small&gt;ULLIVAN&lt;/small&gt; has been speaking his mind on the Smith-Slavin fight to some purpose. &quot;I can't see how an English fighter can be beaten,&quot; he said. This man Smith is little better than a middle-weight, and I haven't the slightest doubt that Slavin beat him fairly. Some people wonder why I did not go to England to fight Smith. Now you understand why I insisted on meeting him in this country. In England fair play is unknown. The man with the greatest number of 'heelers' always wins or saves himself from defeat. Slavin or Jackson will, in all probability, look for a match with me when they arrive in this country, and | am perfectly willing to meet either or both of them for a proper consideration. I want a big purse, and I am not particular where I fight so long as it is in a club-house. No more law-breaking for  me.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Late Fight. Meeting of the Pelican Club. Stormy Proceedings. The Committee Resigns.&quot; ''The Sportsman'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 3b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001055%2F18900109&amp;page=4&amp;article=049&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Also on January 9, the ''Sportsman'' reported on a collection made for Slavin:&lt;blockquote&gt;THE SLAVIN TESTIMONIAL&lt;p&gt;

The subscriptions towards the above now amount to over 400''l.'', and it having been decided to close the list on the 20th, the committee will be obliged if those who have promised donations will forward the same to the hon. sec. and treasurer, Mr. G. T. Dunning, T&lt;small&gt;HE&lt;/small&gt; S&lt;small&gt;PORTSMAN&lt;/small&gt; Office.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
!£
!s.
!d.
|-
|Amount already acknowledged
|407
|3
|6
|-
|Mr E.Tabernacle
|1
|1
|1
|-
|H. S.
|1
|1
|0
|}
&lt;blockquote&gt;The guinea acknowledged per Mr Riley, from C. R., yesterday, should be from C. K.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Late Fight. Meeting of the Pelican Club. Stormy Proceedings. The Committee Resigns.&quot; ''The Sportsman'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 3b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001055%2F18900109&amp;page=4&amp;article=049&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== The ''Huddersfield Daily Chronicle'' ===
On 10 January 1890:&lt;blockquote&gt;
Mitchell and Lord Mandeville.

As an addendum to the important meeting of the Pelican Club committee, on Wednesday, came a gathering of &quot;sports&quot; at the Trocadero, Piccadilly Circus. Lord Mandeville and Mr. Abington., who had been in attendance at Denman-street, were joined by &quot;Pony&quot; Moore, his son-in-law, C. Mitchell, J. Carney (the Birmingham light-weight), J. Baldock, B. Habbijam, C. Bates, &amp;c. The party, who occupied seats in the stalls, naturally discussed things pugilistic, the talk being mostly devoted to the recent international fight between Frank P. Slavin and Jem Smith. &quot; [sic] The Squire's opinions on the matter happened not to coincide with those of Mitchell, and high words were exchanged between the pair. Suddenly the Birmingham boxer jumped up and &quot;went for&quot; Mr. Abington, but did not strike him. Lord Mandeville immediately interposed and asked Mitchell to be quiet, whereupon the latter directed his attention to his lordship, and struck him sharply on the forehead. Carney and Baldock sprang to his lordship's assistance, and Mitchell and &quot;Pony&quot; Moore at once left the building, the whole proceedings not lasting longer than a few seconds. It soon became noised abroad that there was &quot;something up,&quot; and a crowd gathered, but the police saw Mitchell and Mr. G. W. Moore safely across the road.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Smith-Slavin Fight.&quot; ''Huddersfield Daily Chronicle'' 10 January 1890, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002876%2F18900110&amp;page=4&amp;article=071&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
After the Pelican Club meetings, Slavin comments:&lt;blockquote&gt;On Wednesday at Westminster Aquarium, F.  P. Slavin, the colonial pugilist, who received such bad treatment at the hands of roughs in his recent prize-fight with Jem Smith, the English &quot;champion,&quot; made his first public appearance since the fight. Mr. Frank Hinde, in introducing Slavin, said he would give an exhibition with Cosnett of Birmingham, who seconded him in his fight. Slavin was the gamest man that ever  stepped into a ring, he hoped the audience would rive him a good old English welcome. On appearing on the stage Slavin met with a most enthusiastic reception, and the three rounds' sparring with Cosnett was much appreciated. At the conclusion Slavin, in response to loud calls, bowed his acknowledgments.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Slavin at the Royal Acquarium.&quot; ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003067%2F18900111&amp;page=3&amp;article=042&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' ===
''Reynolds's Newspaper'' quotes J. L. Sullivan on the Smith-Slavin match:&lt;blockquote&gt;Mr. John L. Sullivan has been speaking his mind on the Smith-Slavin fight to some purpose. &quot;I can't see how an English fighter can be beaten,&quot; he said. &quot;This man Smith is little better than a middle-weight, and I haven't the slightest doubt that Slavin beat him fairly. Some people wonder why I did not go to England to fight Smith. Now you can understand why I insisted on meeting him in this country. In England fair play is unknown. The man with the greatest number of &quot;heelers&quot; always wins or saves himself from defeat. Slavin or Jackson will in all probability look for a match with me when they arrive in this country, and I am perfectly willing to meet either or both of them for a proper consideration. I went a big purse, and I am not particular where I fight so long as it is in a club-house. No more law-breaking for me.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Recent Prize Fight.&quot; ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&amp;page=6&amp;article=053&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== The ''Cork Constitution'' ===
About Mr G Baird (Mr. Abington) from the ''Cork Constitution'':, referring at the end to the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]] or a restaurant:&lt;blockquote&gt;This well-known sportsman (Mr G Baird) who is occupying an unenviable position owing to his conduct at the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality, is the largest owner of race horses in England. He has no less than 100 horses in training, and though he won £10,000 in stakes last year it is computed that he should have won £25,000 additional to even pay his way. Anent that fight which has caused such indignation in the country, a London music hall was last week the scene of a pretty disturbance. Mr Abington and Lord Mandeville occupied a box during the entertainment, and received, amongst others, Charlie Mitchell, the well-known pugilist; an angry discussion ''re'' the fight ensued, and concluded by the peer measuring himself on the floor from one Mitchell’s &quot;lefts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Abington.&quot; ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&amp;page=7&amp;article=099&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== The ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' ===
This report from the ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' mentions fighting in the streets (at a corner in Fleet Street) and tosses in an unrelated sentence about an upcoming match between a West Indian and J. L. Sullivan:&lt;blockquote&gt;The disgraceful affair, called by courtesy and [sic] &quot;International Prize Fight,&quot; which desecrated the peaceful dignity of the quaint old city of Bruges on Monday morning ought to convince people that there is nothing left to hope for in the Prize Ring. [2c–3a] At eight o'clock in the morning, Jem Smith, self-styled Champion of England, and Frank Slavin, the Australian Champion, with their seconds and parties, met in the grounds of a private gentleman to try conclusions. The &quot;fight&quot; lasted for twenty-five minutes, and was then brought to an abrupt conclusion by the referee declaring it drawn — he would have been killed had he given it to Slavin, who proved to be incomparably the better man. Fourteen rounds were fought in all, during the whole of which time Smith's friends and Smith's seconds worried, and at last assaulted, the Australian, who behaved quite pluckily. It is a disgrace to the name of Englishmen that this brutal scene should go forth to the world. Smith's backers knew well that he had no chance of winning, so they laid their plans to smash Slavin on their own account. It is a wonder that he was not killed — as was reported in Fleet-street at ten o'clock — for Smith's roughs struck and kicked him whenever he came near their corner. Although Lord Mandeville, Lord Rosslyn, Sir M. Sandys, and a few other members of the upper circle, were present at the fight, the bulk of the spectators were the refuse of the gambling rings of London, blackguards and ruffians of the deepest dye. The stakes were £1,000. So great an amount of indignation has been expressed on all sides at the treatment to which the Australian was exposed, that a subscription has been opened up for him. The West Indian, Jackson, is just leaving London for San Francisco, in order to get ready to meet J. L. Sullivan.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London.&quot; ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' 16 January 1890, Thursday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2c–3a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004059%2F18900116&amp;page=2&amp;article=019&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Notes and Questions ==
# 

==References==
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    <title>Growth per Nobel economists and others</title>
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      <text bytes="55910" sha1="lcmdcgj75elqo445r0a26urynstcnc8" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 
:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260). [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed roughly half of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economies of England and Holland to roughly 1400.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 189).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]
[[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]]
[[Category:Political science]]
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      <text bytes="56097" sha1="bbaa1xi87i12c1myz46zdgobd0pf15s" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 
:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260). [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed roughly half of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 189).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]
[[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
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      <comment>half &gt; 30-60%</comment>
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      <text bytes="56110" sha1="m92cowy6nhmjry39hde3vxw8rxi3ku8" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 
:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260). [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 189).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

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:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260). [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
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:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
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== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

[[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;. Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
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:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1807 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

[[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;. Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
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:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1807 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

[[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;. Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]
[[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
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      <text bytes="56137" sha1="pxf8z6lic07zhxeuewymfufk0e8t0sf" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 
:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Project Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics Project == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1807 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

[[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;. Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Economics]]
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[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
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      <text bytes="56114" sha1="ktpel732rxi028lacilpoypo32w8k98" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 
:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Project Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Project == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1807 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report.

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

[[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;. Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]
[[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
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      <text bytes="56113" sha1="5ug46ihte9edzwmi9tf59otofjfk5aj" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}} 
:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison Project data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media.

== Maddison Project == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1807 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report.

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

[[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;. Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Economics]]
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[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
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[[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]]
[[Category:Political science]]
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:''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].''
:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.''  
::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]''

== Abstract ==

This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison Project data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. 

== Maddison Historical Statistics == 

[[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1807 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting in 1650 with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore starting in 1870).&lt;ref&gt;See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 could be due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands, as Holland at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.&lt;/ref&gt;'']]

The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. 

When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Bolt and van Zanden (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) 

We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].&lt;ref&gt;Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. 

This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. 

== Nobel economists and others ==

Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, &quot;despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive.&quot; That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. 

While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, &quot;The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services.&quot; In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. 

Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, &quot;intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished.&quot; That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote|

the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this &quot;Cardwell's Law&quot; after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote|

the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}}

[[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this &quot;the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]&quot;. Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012).  

Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.&lt;/ref&gt; And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. 

The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became &quot;possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions&quot;, dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade &quot;and converting Venice into a museum&quot;, in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155).  

Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;, who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; and major media organizations, who promote such &quot;entrepreneurs&quot; to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.&lt;ref&gt;See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites.  

For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,&lt;ref&gt;e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).&lt;/ref&gt; and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.&lt;ref&gt;Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.&lt;ref&gt;Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded &quot;that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as &quot;entrepreneurs of hate&quot;. 

We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. 

=== Diversity of ownership of the major media === 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would &quot;protect&quot; them in wars against designated evil others.

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, &quot;Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]&quot; and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) 

But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.&lt;ref&gt;Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand&lt;ref&gt;Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; and was much more popular than Tetzel's.&lt;ref&gt;Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature&lt;ref&gt;Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt;

Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. 

When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. 

But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, &quot;A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Washington (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).&lt;/ref&gt; The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.&lt;ref&gt;Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.&lt;/ref&gt; However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. 

One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792&lt;ref&gt;Wikipedia &quot;[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]&quot;, accessed 2023-07-11.&lt;/ref&gt; made a major contribution to making the US what it is today.  Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.&lt;ref&gt;Historian, USPS (2010).&lt;/ref&gt; McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.&lt;ref name=McC-N2010&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).&lt;/ref&gt; 

During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;John (1995). See also the interview with him at &quot;[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.&lt;ref&gt;The &quot;6 percent per year&quot; growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in &quot;[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt; 

One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. 

FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. 

FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.&lt;ref&gt;This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]&quot; in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.&lt;/ref&gt;

FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, &quot;the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred.&quot; They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. 

Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, &quot;[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of &quot;influencers&quot; by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed &quot;a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures.&quot; In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.&lt;/ref&gt; 

And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| 

In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%.  The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth.  But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}}

Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020
|-
! 
! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr)
|- 
! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 
|-
| Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1%  
|- 
| Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29%
|- 
| MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41%
|}

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp.  105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote|

were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} 

Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. 

=== Media conflicts of interest in IP law ===

Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. 

Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote|

[the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}}

In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]]  disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. 

[[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than &quot;promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot;. This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.&lt;ref&gt;Lessig (2004, p. 42).&lt;/ref&gt; 

This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the &quot;JAWBONE act&quot;, to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-16.&lt;/ref&gt; limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets.

Similarly Graves (2023) asked, &quot;Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?&quot; No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.&lt;ref&gt;Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]&quot;. That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).&lt;/ref&gt;

Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, &quot;[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth&quot; in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays &quot;a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita&quot;, discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Immigrants === 

We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. 

But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920&quot;. 

=== Industrial Revolution ===

There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. 

Mokyr (2017, p.  3) says, &quot;The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society.&quot; He described &quot;three cultural elements&quot; required for &quot;sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress&quot;: (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. &quot;[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.&lt;ref&gt;Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).&lt;/ref&gt; Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, &quot;The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution.&quot; 

Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, &quot;European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?&quot; Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the &quot;first Industrial Revolution&quot; as having been triggered by &quot;the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not &quot;phases of growth and decline&quot; with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. 

Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, &quot;the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward.&quot; ... However, &quot;the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously.&quot; (chapter 5) They also claim that, &quot;English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700&quot;, (chapter 5), and &quot;Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root.&quot; (p. 45, chapter 2)

Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] 

Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the &quot;Old Pretender&quot;, a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. 

When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, &quot;and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as &quot;the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]&quot;. After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as &quot;the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave &quot;[[w:Common land|common land]]&quot; to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined &quot;Blacks&quot;, so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.&lt;ref&gt;Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]&quot;, accessed 2026-10-17.&lt;/ref&gt; 

But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 &quot;John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized&quot; with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).&lt;/ref&gt; 

These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded &quot;universal [adult male] suffrage&quot; and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote|

The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}}

The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. 

== In sum ==

The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. 

However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;ref&gt;Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Caveat ==

The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141241291}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7997840}} 
* &lt;!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137641358}}
* &lt;!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). &quot;Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway&quot;. The Conversation.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141758664}}
* &lt;!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) &quot;European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141678287}}
* &lt;!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100216001}}
* &lt;!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q85764011}}
* &lt;!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) &quot;Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update&quot;, Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126723821}}
* &lt;!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q57945943}}
* &lt;!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141795083}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141156783}}
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141158362}}
* &lt;!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) &quot;Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141774179}}
* &lt;!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136227988}}
* &lt;!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) &quot;The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932800}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132855526}}
* &lt;!--Graves (2023-03-21)  Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126116187}}
* &lt;!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137188993}}
* &lt;!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112167199}}
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) &quot;Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141737347}}
* &lt;!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture--&gt;{{cite Q|Q830526}}
* &lt;!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) &quot;Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective&quot;, Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200--&gt;{{cite Q|Q128434874}}
* &lt;!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). &quot;
Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime&quot;
. Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55932802}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready--&gt;{{cite Q|Q87619174}}
* &lt;!--Robert Michels (1911)  Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties--&gt;{{cite Q|Q7210216}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136118590}}
* &lt;!--Joel Mokyr (1994) &quot;Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress&quot;, Research Policy 23(5)561-574--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139772607}}
* &lt;!--Ashley N. Muchow &amp; Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) &quot;From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest&quot;, Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141760694}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* &lt;!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}}
* &lt;!--John Hely Owen (1938)  War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141757101}}
* &lt;!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761223}}
* &lt;!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139886018}}
* &lt;!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141761849}}
* &lt;!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) &quot;Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141735231}}
* &lt;!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669960}}
* &lt;!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137669987}}
* &lt;!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption --&gt;{{Cite Q|Q134715465}}
* &lt;!--J. L. van Zanden  and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137670058}} 
* &lt;!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) &quot; A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q141822147}}
* &lt;!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) &quot;The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q98775875}}

[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Gross domestic product]]
[[Category:Economic growth]]
[[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
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https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review
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    <title>WhatsApp group moderation</title>
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'''WhatsApp group moderation''' is a short learning resource for people who administer groups and communities on the messaging application WhatsApp. It covers the platform's native settings, common forms of spam and fraud, and practical moderation routines. It does not cover or recommend any third-party product. WhatsApp is a trademark of its owner, and this resource is not affiliated with WhatsApp or Meta.

== Who this is for ==
Volunteers and staff who run family, school, neighbourhood, religious, hobby or work groups, and anyone who has just become a group admin.

== Learning objectives ==
After completing the lessons, learners should be able to:
# describe the size limits and structure of WhatsApp groups and Communities;
# configure group permissions, join approval and &quot;Send for admin review&quot;;
# recognise the main types of WhatsApp scams and spam described by banks and regulators;
# write and enforce a set of group rules;
# secure an admin account with two-step verification and recover a compromised account.

== Lessons ==
# [[/Lesson 1|Lesson 1: Groups and Communities]]
# [[/Lesson 2|Lesson 2: Admin permissions and settings]]
# [[/Lesson 3|Lesson 3: Spam, scams and fraud in groups]]
# [[/Lesson 4|Lesson 4: Group rules and enforcement]]
# [[/Lesson 5|Lesson 5: Account security for admins]]
# [[/Lesson 6|Lesson 6: Engagement features and their risks]]
# [[/Quiz|Quiz]]

Estimated time: about 2 hours. Features change; each lesson cites the WhatsApp Help Center pages it relies on, checked in October 2026.

[[Category:Digital literacy]] [[Category:Online communities]] [[Category:Information security]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1627" sha1="3mo2lg1cg9zl9dvt29wdkf71u8gzgvl" xml:space="preserve">'''WhatsApp group moderation''' is a short learning resource for people who administer groups and communities on the messaging application WhatsApp. It covers the platform's native settings, common forms of spam and fraud, and practical moderation routines. It does not cover or recommend any third-party product. WhatsApp is a trademark of its owner, and this resource is not affiliated with WhatsApp or Meta.

== Who this is for ==
Volunteers and staff who run family, school, neighbourhood, religious, hobby or work groups, and anyone who has just become a group admin.

== Learning objectives ==
After completing the lessons, learners should be able to:
# describe the size limits and structure of WhatsApp groups and Communities;
# configure group permissions, join approval and &quot;Send for admin review&quot;;
# recognise the main types of WhatsApp scams and spam described by banks and regulators;
# write and enforce a set of group rules;
# secure an admin account with two-step verification and recover a compromised account.

== Lessons ==
# [[/Lesson 1|Lesson 1: Groups and Communities]]
# [[/Lesson 2|Lesson 2: Admin permissions and settings]]
# [[/Lesson 3|Lesson 3: Spam, scams and fraud in groups]]
# [[/Lesson 4|Lesson 4: Group rules and enforcement]]
# [[/Lesson 5|Lesson 5: Account security for admins]]
# [[/Lesson 6|Lesson 6: Engagement features and their risks]]
# [[/Quiz|Quiz]]

Estimated time: about 2 hours. Features change; each lesson cites the WhatsApp Help Center pages it relies on, checked in October 2026.

[[Category:Digital literacy]] [[Category:Online communities]] [[Category:Information security]]</text>
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    <title>Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Cosmic Time</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Current Definition */</comment>
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      <text bytes="4929" sha1="k63llo60d6b4xgxptrg0n5kk5jxft73" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}}
''Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG.''

= Current Definition =
In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of time — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute… This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. 

References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings.

References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time.

So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. 

It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist.

We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. 

= Succession =
What does exist, however, is '''Succession.''' 

This sequence of events gives the idea of past and future. A glass that breaks cannot reassemble itself. Indeed, once it has broken, we can say: it was intact (past), and now (present/future) it is shattered. 

This succession gives the impression of time passing, but without chronometry it is not the useful time indicated by our watches; it is simply a '''Succession''' of events. 

The confusion is easy, but the difference is immense. Our prehistoric ancestors saw that days followed one another, that the dead did not wake up, that water flowed in one direction in streams and rivers. But they had no watches. They did not measure time. They had no appointments at 3:00 p.m. At best, they could agree to meet at sunrise or sunset — nothing more.

And it is precisely this reference — '''sunrise or sunset''' — actually '''the circadian periodicity,''' that makes time measurement possible.

= the Circadian Periodicity =
What we wear on our wrist is the calculation of this periodicity, divided into units of measurement: hours, minutes, seconds. Time zones are interpretations of this periodicity, based on the dance of the Sun and Earth for each latitude. 

People wake with the day in America, and in France as well — at the same local time, '''but not at the same moment'''. Universal time therefore does not exist. On the contrary, it exists only for this pin‑head called Earth, hidden among trillions of football fields. Worse still, it exists only for the humans who live on it. Animals do not care.

Time zones are the best evidence of the circadian periodicity as they measure the sleep and awake time of humans all around the world.

= the Misundertanding =
Chronometric time is a key value for many physical parameters and equations. It is the basis of acceleration and velocity, which in turn allow us to calculate force, thrust, and so on. Even Einstein misunderstood this, naming his concept ''spacetime'', whereas its true name should have been closer to ''local-space‑time'' since time exists only for humans, locally, and not in the universe.  

ΛCDM itself, when it calculates the age of the universe as 13.7 billion years, speaks of years that did not exist before the appearance of the Earth and the Sun. It obviously gives an idea of duration in a human's mind but says nothing about the real age of the universe.

= The Light Years =
Since distances are expressed in kilometres travelled by light in a year, we assume that cosmic distances are a question and a function of time. This is why this passage is of immense importance for the understanding of cosmology — or rather, for its misunderstanding, because this mistake calls the whole of it into question.

The light-year is a human mind unit.

The same is true of the speed of light. It is usually presented as a universal constant — 299,792,458 metres per second. But the metre and the second are human units. The second is defined by the circadian periodicity of life on Earth. The metre is defined by the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Each unit refers back to the other, and both refer back to the Earth and its humans.

The speed of light is therefore not a constant of the universe, but a human convention — a circular one.

'''Nothing is measurable in the universe without a human or any other entity's reference.'''</text>
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    <title>User:~2026-56788-08/ALS</title>
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      <comment>[[w:ALS|enwp article about Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="496" sha1="q7197pyj8jdm1a59bduethm659m725l" xml:space="preserve">CBC the fifth estate Presents: ALS Country

One woman’s fight to understand why her husband died of ALS and the public health investigation into a possible cluster of Lou Gehrig's disease.

check out the following:
* [[RNA interference/Medical#section Treating Lou Gehrig's disease]]
* [[Introduction to Brain-Computer Interfaces/Module 6: Clinical Applications]]
* [[World War I -- Life Histories/Section 018/H. Gaston Carney]]

[[w:ALS|enwp article about Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)]]</text>
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    <title>WhatsApp group moderation/Lesson 1</title>
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      <text bytes="2938" sha1="in2210efzgv9v3on7u3yu3l4048fwb2" xml:space="preserve">== Key facts ==
* A group can hold up to 1,024 members (1,025 including the creator). If a group is full, a person can request to join once a member leaves.&lt;ref name=&quot;join&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/967457667545238/?cms_platform=web How to join a group in a community]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* A '''Community''' bundles up to 100 groups. An '''Announcements''' group is created automatically so that community admins can message everyone.&lt;ref name=&quot;community&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/438859978317289/?cms_platform=web How to create a community]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* A community can have up to 2,000 members in total, counting the sub-groups and the announcement group.&lt;ref name=&quot;community&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/438859978317289/?cms_platform=web How to create a community]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Communities cannot currently be created from the WhatsApp Business app.&lt;ref name=&quot;community&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/438859978317289/?cms_platform=web How to create a community]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Group privacy settings do not apply to community announcements: members of a community are always added to them.&lt;ref name=&quot;privacy&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/1131457590844955 How to change group privacy settings]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* WhatsApp publishes guidance on choosing between a group and a community.&lt;ref name=&quot;choose&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/1088878800305460 How to decide whether to create a WhatsApp group or community]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Its guide for community organisers recommends sharing invite links only privately and never on public web pages.&lt;ref name=&quot;safecomm&quot;&gt;[https://www.whatsapp.com/communities/learning/buildingasafecommunity Building a Safe Community]. WhatsApp. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Context: why moderation matters ==
In Brazil, 36% of respondents to the Reuters Institute's 2025 survey used WhatsApp for news in the previous week.&lt;ref name=&quot;reuters&quot;&gt;[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/brazil Brazil – Digital News Report 2025]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; A study of more than 100,000 public Brazilian groups found that most widely forwarded content involved violence, pornography or betting, alongside political misinformation.&lt;ref name=&quot;lupa&quot;&gt;[https://www.agencialupa.org/jornalismo/2025/11/03/o-brasil-do-zap/ O Brasil do 'Zap': Lupa revela o que viraliza em grupos públicos de WhatsApp]. Agência Lupa, 3 November 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Exercise ==
You run a parents' network for a school with 6 classes of about 30 families each. Decide whether to use one group or a community, and justify your choice using the limits above.


== References ==
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    <title>WhatsApp group moderation/Lesson 2</title>
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      <text bytes="2864" sha1="jzua6l7f0b95qodfko1fkwmq1lrwz3p" xml:space="preserve">== Group permissions ==
Admins can choose whether only admins or all members may edit group info, send messages and add members.&lt;ref name=&quot;adminset&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/526742385997912/?locale=en_US&amp;cms_platform=web How to change group admin settings]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In groups started with fewer than 33 members, all members can do these things by default.&lt;ref name=&quot;adminset&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/526742385997912/?locale=en_US&amp;cms_platform=web How to change group admin settings]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In groups with more than 256 members, &quot;Edit group settings&quot; defaults to admins only.&lt;ref name=&quot;adminset&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/526742385997912/?locale=en_US&amp;cms_platform=web How to change group admin settings]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* If the only admin leaves, another member is chosen at random to become admin, so appoint at least one more admin.&lt;ref name=&quot;adminset&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/526742385997912/?locale=en_US&amp;cms_platform=web How to change group admin settings]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Join approval ==
With '''Approve new members''' on, admins must approve anyone who wants to join. The setting is off by default. Admins see the source of each request and can open the requester's contact info before deciding.&lt;ref name=&quot;approve&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/902091421605313/?cms_platform=web How to approve new members as a group admin]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Send for admin review ==
Admins can turn on '''Send for admin review'''. Members can then flag a message they believe is a scam, spam or inappropriate. All admins are notified, but the sender and the other members are not.&lt;ref name=&quot;review&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/286279577291174/?cms_platform=web How to send a message for admin review]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Admins can delete the message for everyone or report it to WhatsApp. Requests expire after about two days.&lt;ref name=&quot;reviewmanage&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/251091377664743/?cms_platform=web How to manage send for admin review]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Message history for new members ==
Since February 2026, members can send between 25 and 100 recent messages to someone they add. Admins can disable this for their group, and everyone is notified when history is shared.&lt;ref name=&quot;bloghistory&quot;&gt;[https://blog.whatsapp.com/introducing-group-message-history-a-more-private-way-to-catch-up-in-group-chats Introducing Group Message History]. WhatsApp Blog, 19 February 2026. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Exercise ==
List the settings you would change in a new 400-member neighbourhood group, and explain each choice.


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    <title>WhatsApp group moderation/Lesson 3</title>
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      <text bytes="5005" sha1="ah725huesr4qm11tmstzgw6rwo5gahx" xml:space="preserve">== How strangers reach a group ==
By default, anyone with a user's phone number can add them to a group. Users can limit this to their contacts, in which case others must send a private invite that expires after three days.&lt;ref name=&quot;privacy&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/1131457590844955 How to change group privacy settings]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Since August 2025, WhatsApp shows a '''safety overview''' when someone the user may not know adds them to a group. It shows when the group was created, who added them and how many members it has, and notifications stay muted until the user chooses to stay.&lt;ref name=&quot;verge&quot;&gt;[https://www.theverge.com/news/718881/whatsapp-group-chat-scams-safety-overview WhatsApp will show a 'safety overview' before you join unknown group chats]. The Verge, 5 August 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;tc&quot;&gt;[https://techcrunch.com/2025/08/05/whatsapp-adds-new-features-to-protect-against-scams/ WhatsApp adds new features to protect against scams]. TechCrunch, 5 August 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Common schemes ==
; Account takeover (&quot;cloning&quot;): The scammer asks the victim for the six-digit SMS code, often posing as customer service, then uses the account to ask the victim's contacts for money. FEBRABAN, Brazil's banking federation, reports this as the scam most reported to banks in 2024.&lt;ref name=&quot;febraban&quot;&gt;[https://portal.febraban.org.br/noticia/4279/pt-br/ Saiba quais foram os 10 golpes mais aplicados contra clientes bancários em 2024]. FEBRABAN, 14 April 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;febraban2&quot;&gt;[https://portal.febraban.org.br/DetalheAntifraude/7/pt-br/ Golpe do Whatsapp]. FEBRABAN, 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
; Impersonation of acquaintances: In a 2025 survey, 44.1% of fraud victims said criminals had posed as someone they knew on WhatsApp.&lt;ref name=&quot;oglobo&quot;&gt;[https://oglobo.globo.com/blogs/ancelmo-gois/post/2025/07/quase-metade-das-vitimas-de-fraudes-digitais-foi-enganada-pelo-whatsapp.ghtml Quase metade das vítimas de fraudes digitais foi enganada pelo... WhatsApp]. O Globo, 29 July 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
; Pix fraud: Messaging apps were the most common starting point of the Pix scams analysed by Silverguard, with WhatsApp at 29.6%.&lt;ref name=&quot;silver&quot;&gt;[https://uploads.finsidersbrasil.com.br/2025/10/Silverguard-Estudo_Golpes_com_Pix_2025.pdf Estudo Golpes com Pix 2025]. Silverguard, 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
; Task and job scams: Unsolicited offers to earn money from online &quot;tasks&quot;, followed by requests for deposits, often in crypto.&lt;ref name=&quot;ftc&quot;&gt;[https://consumer.ftc.gov/consumer-alerts/2025/08/how-spot-avoid-task-scams How to spot and avoid task scams]. U.S. Federal Trade Commission, 14 August 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Victims may be added to group chats full of fake &quot;employees&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;scamwatch&quot;&gt;[https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/types-of-scams/jobs-and-employment-scams Jobs and employment scams]. Scamwatch, Australian Government. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
; Investment groups: An &quot;investment mentor&quot; recommends shares in a group made up mostly of accounts controlled by the scammers (pump-and-dump). In 2026 these groups also began steering victims to fake trading apps.&lt;ref name=&quot;fma&quot;&gt;[https://www.fma.govt.nz/library/warnings-and-alerts/suspected-pump-and-dump-schemes Investment advice group chats used in suspected pump-and-dump schemes]. Financial Markets Authority (NZ), 3 October 2025, updated 2026. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;cftc&quot;&gt;[https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/2024/10/MessagingApps.pdf Customer Advisory: Use Caution Responding to Messaging Apps]. U.S. CFTC, October 2024. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
; Mass rumours: In August 2025, alarmist messages about Banco do Brasil spread through groups and were referred to the Federal Police.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc&quot;&gt;[https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/articles/cg7jkz2xg2vo Tirar dinheiro do Banco do Brasil? Como grupos de WhatsApp acreditaram em falsa 'falência']. BBC News Brasil, 29 August 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Platform rules ==
WhatsApp prohibits unauthorised automated or bulk messaging. Accounts showing signs of it can be restricted or banned.&lt;ref name=&quot;bulk&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/5957850900902049 Unauthorized use of automated or bulk messaging on WhatsApp]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;restricted&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/717472490411581/?cms_platform=web About restricted accounts]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; WhatsApp says it detects and removes most spam accounts automatically.&lt;ref name=&quot;security&quot;&gt;[https://www.whatsapp.com/security Security Features, Safety Tools &amp; Tips]. WhatsApp. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Exercise ==
Write a short pinned message warning members about the two schemes most relevant to your group, using the descriptions above.


== References ==
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    <title>WhatsApp group moderation/Lesson 4</title>
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      <text bytes="1955" sha1="5b2c9ggwun1g1rfdmkgb0noomvdcdff" xml:space="preserve">== Writing rules ==
WhatsApp's guide for community organisers recommends enforcing community rules consistently and treating content as problematic if it breaks the rules, harms members, is false, or contains suspicious links.&lt;ref name=&quot;safecomm&quot;&gt;[https://www.whatsapp.com/communities/learning/buildingasafecommunity Building a Safe Community]. WhatsApp. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

Typical rules cover:
* the group's topic;
* whether links, forwards, stickers and media are allowed;
* a ban on job, investment and loan offers (see Lesson 3);
* a sequence of consequences, such as warning, then removal.

== Enforcement toolkit (native) ==
* Admin-only messaging for announcements or emergencies.&lt;ref name=&quot;adminset&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/526742385997912/?locale=en_US&amp;cms_platform=web How to change group admin settings]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Join approval to screen newcomers.&lt;ref name=&quot;approve&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/902091421605313/?cms_platform=web How to approve new members as a group admin]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Send for admin review, so members can flag content.&lt;ref name=&quot;reviewmanage&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/251091377664743/?cms_platform=web How to manage send for admin review]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Deleting messages and removing members.&lt;ref name=&quot;safecomm&quot;&gt;[https://www.whatsapp.com/communities/learning/buildingasafecommunity Building a Safe Community]. WhatsApp. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Forwarding limits: a message can be forwarded to five chats at a time, and an already-forwarded message to at most one group.&lt;ref name=&quot;safecomm&quot;&gt;[https://www.whatsapp.com/communities/learning/buildingasafecommunity Building a Safe Community]. WhatsApp. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Exercise ==
Draft five rules for a 200-member hobby group, plus the consequence for each.


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    <title>WhatsApp group moderation/Lesson 5</title>
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      <text bytes="1700" sha1="hirudhvfeu754dtaertpjcs1jbjkora" xml:space="preserve">An admin account that is taken over can be used to scam every member, so admins need extra protection.

== Two-step verification ==
Two-step verification adds a PIN, separate from the six-digit registration code. Adding an email address allows the PIN to be reset.&lt;ref name=&quot;2fa&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/1278661612895630 About two-step verification]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Never share the registration code or the PIN.&lt;ref name=&quot;reg2fa&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/506595211487528/?locale=en_US About registration and two-step verification]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Linked devices ==
Accounts can be linked to other devices with a QR code or an eight-character code.&lt;ref name=&quot;link&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/1324084875126592 How to link a device with phone number]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Review linked devices regularly and log out of any you do not recognise.&lt;ref name=&quot;sectips&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/1095301557782068 Account security tips]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== If the account is compromised ==
Re-register the number with the SMS code. This logs out every other device. If you are asked for a PIN you do not know, wait seven days. Warn your contacts, because the attacker may impersonate you in chats and groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;recover&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/1131652977717250/?locale=en_US How to recover a compromised account]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Exercise ==
Check that two-step verification is on and review your linked devices. Note what you found, without recording any codes.


== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>hirudhvfeu754dtaertpjcs1jbjkora</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>WhatsApp group moderation/Lesson 6</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>332648</id>
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      <id>2842569</id>
      <timestamp>2026-10-25T13:11:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAGroupsEditor</username>
        <id>3113036</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Create Lesson 6</comment>
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      <text bytes="1627" sha1="p60v3qr7bbhqy9za1swc4yjhmb0ramw" xml:space="preserve">== Features ==
* '''Events''': name, date, time, description and optional call link. Members answer Going, Maybe or Not going, and only the creator can edit or pin the event.&lt;ref name=&quot;events&quot;&gt;[https://faq.whatsapp.com/3313983622238973/?cms_platform=web How to create and edit events in groups]. WhatsApp Help Center. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Polls''' (2026): end times, hidden voter names, and editing within 15 minutes.&lt;ref name=&quot;blogpolls&quot;&gt;[https://blog.whatsapp.com/your-group-chats-upgraded-introducing-better-polls-all-and-more Your Group Chats Upgraded: Introducing Better Polls, @all and More]. WhatsApp Blog, 4 August 2026. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''@all''' (2026): notifies everyone, even in muted chats. In groups with more than 32 people, only admins can use it.&lt;ref name=&quot;blogpolls&quot;&gt;[https://blog.whatsapp.com/your-group-chats-upgraded-introducing-better-polls-all-and-more Your Group Chats Upgraded: Introducing Better Polls, @all and More]. WhatsApp Blog, 4 August 2026. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''New group from an existing group''' (2026).&lt;ref name=&quot;blogpolls&quot;&gt;[https://blog.whatsapp.com/your-group-chats-upgraded-introducing-better-polls-all-and-more Your Group Chats Upgraded: Introducing Better Polls, @all and More]. WhatsApp Blog, 4 August 2026. Retrieved 21 October 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Risks ==
Features that notify everyone can be misused by an attacker who has taken over an admin's account. Secure admin accounts first (Lesson 5).

== Exercise ==
Plan a monthly meeting using an event and a poll, and decide who is allowed to use @all.


== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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    <title>WhatsApp group moderation/Quiz</title>
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{What is the maximum number of members in a WhatsApp group?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- 256
- 512
+ 1,024
- 2,000

{How many groups can a WhatsApp Community contain?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- 20
- 50
+ 100
- 1,024

{Which setting lets members flag a suspicious message to admins without notifying the sender?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Send for admin review
- Edit group settings
- Approve new members

{A contact asks you for the 6-digit code you just received by SMS. What should you do?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Send it, because it is someone you know
+ Never share it; the request is a typical account takeover scam
- Post it in the group so the admins can check it

{Which of these are described by regulators as common group scams? (select all)
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ Task and job offers that ask for deposits
+ &quot;Investment club&quot; groups recommending small stocks
- Official WhatsApp event invitations

{In groups with more than 32 people, who can use @all?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Everyone
+ Admins only
- Nobody
&lt;/quiz&gt;</text>
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== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Report concerning [[special:contribs/Bśadów$ki112|Bśadów$ki112]] ==
'''Reasons''': Long-term abuse. Impersonation of [[:sulutil:Bsadowski1|Bsadowski1]]. --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:19, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:20, 28 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Report concerning [[special:contribs/Bśadów$ki112|Bśadów$ki112]] ==
'''Reasons''': Long-term abuse. Impersonation of [[:sulutil:Bsadowski1|Bsadowski1]]. --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:19, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:20, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==
proofreading and summarizing I excel in  social science and current events history political science are my areas of past study. Could I be custodian of primarily pages dealing with social science and politics? I have experience editing am a advanced reader and can accept more than one point of view on almost any topic the point is to see the ethical standard and protection of people of sacred belief of food equitable relationships and not accept any point of view that includes towards a laissez faire attitude on abuse. To me it's what we can do as individuals,as community,as friends as family not what harm is possible for that is off the boards not acceptable. I'll keep a open mind and not stifle any dissent. My interest is also in assuring the complete construction of explanatory paragraphs,proper wording and generally good punctuation.  [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50875-97|~2026-50875-97]] ([[User talk:~2026-50875-97|talk]]) 15:27, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

:What you posted here does not require custodian action and show some poor judgement: This board is for escalated issues that a standard user can't perform. What you are basically writing here is &quot;I would like to be a custodian&quot;. There is a process for that, but step one would be having an actual account to edit from, so do that first, then edit here as a non-custodian in a helpful manner, and then make the request if you'd still like that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:38, 21 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <id>2842623</id>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* I am trying to publish a biography */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="9802" sha1="3df5jsv8eleao0q5gg65i59gkxljtux" xml:space="preserve">{{Archive|Wikiversity:Request custodian action}}

== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Report concerning [[special:contribs/Bśadów$ki112|Bśadów$ki112]] ==
'''Reasons''': Long-term abuse. Impersonation of [[:sulutil:Bsadowski1|Bsadowski1]]. --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:19, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:20, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==
proofreading and summarizing I excel in  social science and current events history political science are my areas of past study. Could I be custodian of primarily pages dealing with social science and politics? I have experience editing am a advanced reader and can accept more than one point of view on almost any topic the point is to see the ethical standard and protection of people of sacred belief of food equitable relationships and not accept any point of view that includes towards a laissez faire attitude on abuse. To me it's what we can do as individuals,as community,as friends as family not what harm is possible for that is off the boards not acceptable. I'll keep a open mind and not stifle any dissent. My interest is also in assuring the complete construction of explanatory paragraphs,proper wording and generally good punctuation.  [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50875-97|~2026-50875-97]] ([[User talk:~2026-50875-97|talk]]) 15:27, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

:What you posted here does not require custodian action and show some poor judgement: This board is for escalated issues that a standard user can't perform. What you are basically writing here is &quot;I would like to be a custodian&quot;. There is a process for that, but step one would be having an actual account to edit from, so do that first, then edit here as a non-custodian in a helpful manner, and then make the request if you'd still like that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:38, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

== I am trying to publish a biography ==
I am a beginner, I cannot succeed. [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 12:57, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

:I posted a [[Template:welcome|welcome message]] to your talk page that gives you an overview of Wikiversity. While a biography &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be considered appropriate here if part of a larger exercise in learning but this is not an encyclopedia like our sibling project Wikipedia, so generally, we won't have much in the way of article-long biographies. Why were you trying to post a biography here and of whom? ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:24, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::I am a writer I publish in Romania and USA, and I wanted to put on-line officially, the Bibliography, both in romanian and english, maybe I am not on the right topic pages, I did much work in Romania, and both in USA, and I am proud, but just maybe I didn't came out with the right issued page, I will do my best to make a bibliography, if I may. It was about my works, so far. I will try another day, if I succeed... Very much greetings Iulia, ro Where I can put the text, I have seen other Bibliographies, on wiki? [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 16:41, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
:::If you want to contribute here and you want to mention your publications on your userpage, I think that's fine. If you just want to make a user page for vanity's sake and aren't going to actually contribute here, I don't think that's useful: we don't provide free hosting. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:11, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::::Thank you very much for your response, I will agree with that. I have seen book lists at other authors, and that was why, is not vanity is work, Iulia E., from Romania... (Wikipedia hosted that kind, it was not my invention), maybe I will contribute if I may with other things, with much friendship, Iulia [[Special:Contributions/~2026-52080-44|~2026-52080-44]] ([[User talk:~2026-52080-44|talk]]) 22:00, 27 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>3df5jsv8eleao0q5gg65i59gkxljtux</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2842625</id>
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        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>2969951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Request for protection of User:Bobiversity */ archive from [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Report concerning [[special:contribs/Bśadów$ki112|Bśadów$ki112]] ==
'''Reasons''': Long-term abuse. Impersonation of [[:sulutil:Bsadowski1|Bsadowski1]]. --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:19, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

:{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:20, 28 August 2026 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==
proofreading and summarizing I excel in  social science and current events history political science are my areas of past study. Could I be custodian of primarily pages dealing with social science and politics? I have experience editing am a advanced reader and can accept more than one point of view on almost any topic the point is to see the ethical standard and protection of people of sacred belief of food equitable relationships and not accept any point of view that includes towards a laissez faire attitude on abuse. To me it's what we can do as individuals,as community,as friends as family not what harm is possible for that is off the boards not acceptable. I'll keep a open mind and not stifle any dissent. My interest is also in assuring the complete construction of explanatory paragraphs,proper wording and generally good punctuation.  [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50875-97|~2026-50875-97]] ([[User talk:~2026-50875-97|talk]]) 15:27, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

:What you posted here does not require custodian action and show some poor judgement: This board is for escalated issues that a standard user can't perform. What you are basically writing here is &quot;I would like to be a custodian&quot;. There is a process for that, but step one would be having an actual account to edit from, so do that first, then edit here as a non-custodian in a helpful manner, and then make the request if you'd still like that. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 15:38, 21 September 2026 (UTC)

== I am trying to publish a biography ==
I am a beginner, I cannot succeed. [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 12:57, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

:I posted a [[Template:welcome|welcome message]] to your talk page that gives you an overview of Wikiversity. While a biography &lt;em&gt;could&lt;/em&gt; be considered appropriate here if part of a larger exercise in learning but this is not an encyclopedia like our sibling project Wikipedia, so generally, we won't have much in the way of article-long biographies. Why were you trying to post a biography here and of whom? ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:24, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::I am a writer I publish in Romania and USA, and I wanted to put on-line officially, the Bibliography, both in romanian and english, maybe I am not on the right topic pages, I did much work in Romania, and both in USA, and I am proud, but just maybe I didn't came out with the right issued page, I will do my best to make a bibliography, if I may. It was about my works, so far. I will try another day, if I succeed... Very much greetings Iulia, ro Where I can put the text, I have seen other Bibliographies, on wiki? [[User:Petrosa51|Petrosa51]] ([[User talk:Petrosa51|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Petrosa51|contribs]]) 16:41, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
:::If you want to contribute here and you want to mention your publications on your userpage, I think that's fine. If you just want to make a user page for vanity's sake and aren't going to actually contribute here, I don't think that's useful: we don't provide free hosting. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:11, 27 September 2026 (UTC)
::::Thank you very much for your response, I will agree with that. I have seen book lists at other authors, and that was why, is not vanity is work, Iulia E., from Romania... (Wikipedia hosted that kind, it was not my invention), maybe I will contribute if I may with other things, with much friendship, Iulia [[Special:Contributions/~2026-52080-44|~2026-52080-44]] ([[User talk:~2026-52080-44|talk]]) 22:00, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

== Request for protection of User:Bobiversity ==
Hello.

I would like to request protection of [[User:Bobiversity]] because I would prefer that other users not edit my user page.

Thank you. [[User:Bobiversity|Bobiversity]] ([[User talk:Bobiversity|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bobiversity|contribs]]) 04:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

:The anonymous editor(s) have been blocked for two weeks for vandalism. Please let us know if this activity continues. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:57, 11 October 2026 (UTC)

::I reverted vandalism, and blocked an anonymous editor. The user page is temporarily protected to prevent further disruption. Please let us know if you have any further trouble. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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     Page title:  Underground Information Architecture: De-Design, Media Ethics, NPH and Human Ecological Recovery
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     ============================================================ --&gt;''This learning resource is maintained by the originator of the framework it describes. It presents original research, offered for open review and challenge on the [[{{TALKPAGENAME}}|discussion page]]. The peer-reviewed and independently sourced literature is cited where it exists; where it does not, the text says so.''

'''Underground information architecture''' is a proposed discipline holding that contemporary architecture is missing two key elements — '''information''' and '''population''' — and that the term &quot;underground,&quot; as applied to all that is not mainstream, therefore extends to architecture itself. The counter-practice it names is a de-design discipline: weighing and measuring media against propaganda, connecting population dynamics to human ecological recovery, and restoring humanistic use of space and information over the agendas of the media monopoly complex.

The framework was developed by George Kasey within the Media Free Times / PeaceMaker Virtual Free University (ViFrU*) project, originating in 1971 lectures on the &quot;Philosophy of Communications De-Design&quot; and the multi-media periodicals of 1972–1974&lt;ref&gt;Kasey, George. ''Underground Information Architecture: De-Design, Media Ethics, NPH and Human Ecological Recovery''. Zenodo, October 2026. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.23642756.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kasey, George. &quot;De-Design and the Ethics of Information Architecture.&quot; ResearchGate, January 2023. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22795.96808.&lt;/ref&gt;. It is closely related to [[Natural Procreative Hygiene]], which supplies its demographic foundation&lt;ref&gt;Kasey, George. &quot;The Technethics Gap: Natural Procreative Hygiene, Media Hegemony, and the Suppression of Demographic Reality.&quot; ''ResearchGate'', April 2026. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21878.56649.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Abstract ==
Classical training addressed enclosure, structure, and space — the static elements of shelter. Industrial information created the necessity for prefab high-rises to meet population explosions, while propaganda — here termed ''artificial ignorance'' — determines what populations are permitted to know. This essay traces the de-design method from its origins in the 1971 &quot;Philosophy of Communications De-Design&quot; lectures at the University of California and the multi-media periodicals of Media Free Times (1972–1974) through to a contemporary pipeline of reader-view redaction, text-to-speech compression, and keyword-search parsing of a 25-million-word spoken corpus. The demographic endpoint of the argument is Natural Procreative Hygiene: reduce population pressure through recovered knowledge, and architecture turns from vertical back to horizontal.

== I. The Missing Elements ==
In July, over coffee at the Diplomatico in Toronto, a question was posed: does anyone have knowledge or reference to the term &quot;underground architecture&quot; — not in the literal sense of building beneath the surface, but in the way underground music is coined?

The answer that came back was characteristic: in the unique case of architecture, the term would be overly confusing — people would hear subterranean siting, earth-covered buildings, energy-efficient campus additions. That objection is precisely the point. Language has been enclosed; the word &quot;underground&quot; has been rezoned.

The proposal on the table: classical architectural training in the 1970s taught three elements — support, substance, action (or in the anthropological register: hearth, roof, enclosure, mound). But on spaceship earth, two further elements determine everything built: '''information''' and '''population'''. It was industrial information that created the necessity for prefab high-rises to meet population explosions. The paradoxical curvilinear icons — the Royal Ontario Museum crystal, the Bilbao museum — are not evolution from the iron grid but its intensification: visibility devices for tourists, financed by the same holding-company money that launders vice through the art economy, surrounded by the condominium forests that are the true built expression of demographic pressure.

Reduce population, and architecture becomes horizontal instead of vertical. That single conditional is the buried foundation of the entire discipline, and no school teaches it.

== II. Artificial Ignorance as Load-Bearing Wall ==
What prevents the teaching of it is not neglect but structure. Following Jacques Ellul — whose monograph ''Propaganda'' explores and attempts to prove the thesis that propaganda, whether its ends are demonstrably good or bad, is not only destructive to democracy but perhaps the most serious threat to humanity operating in the modern world&lt;ref&gt;Ellul, Jacques. ''Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes''. Knopf, 1965.&lt;/ref&gt; — this essay treats '''artificial ignorance''' as engineered, not accidental.

Its techniques, catalogued across five decades of the ViFrU media-ethics study:

* '''Information overload''' — the exchange of URL links mistaken for dialogue, where each link is in fact product advertising;
* '''Subliminal semiotic implants''' — rhetorical flourishes (&quot;radically honest and deliciously sweet&quot;) masking informational vacancy;
* '''Chemical and plug-in drugs''' — sucrose as starter drug, the internet as delivery system;
* '''Work-enforced adrenaline cycling''' and psychologically toxic violent imaging.

In the film ''They Live'', the hero wears sunglasses that reveal the hidden messages in advertising: &quot;Obey,&quot; &quot;Consume,&quot; &quot;Procreate.&quot; The works of critics like Ellul, Innis, Bagdikian and Postman are those sunglasses. Once looked through, nothing stays the same. Radical creativity that notices this is, in McLuhan's words, marginalized, quarantined, homogenized, and then cloned — the tranquilizer-chair treatment.

== III. De-Design: Weighing and Measuring Media ==
The counter-practice was named in 1971: '''de-design''' — the philosophy of communications design in reverse. Not adding media, but stripping it to what informs.

The founding parable is the sticker machine. As a young man on the receiving end of a molding machine in a lumberyard, the lesson was learned: a spinning block of aligned blades strips the board of everything unnecessary, and the exact output dimension is set by a line drawn beforehand on graph paper. Mass media is the same machine run by other people. The lumber arrives pre-stripped — to someone else's drawing. The de-design question is simply: '''who holds the pencil, and what does the drawing specify?'''

In Overeaters Anonymous, compulsive eaters weigh and measure food. Media Anonymous proposes the identical discipline for information:

# '''Weighing''' — Covey's quadrants applied to the media diet: urgent-and-important from the position of the Zen beginner's mind; first things first; the remaining ninety-nine percent of the feed cut by the blade.
# '''Measuring''' — technical reduction of content to its actual payload: reader-view extraction stripped of advertising templates; transcription of text to voice at increased speed; comparison of what a headline promises against what its parsed text delivers.

Two illustrative cases from the protocol notes: ''The Big Rest – Economics'' — a synopsis promising &quot;a radically honest and deliciously sweet review of our absurdly dysfunctional economic system,&quot; which reduces, after redaction, to buzzwords telling the reader nothing; and ''The Big Reset'', which claims the pandemic is &quot;a media campaign of fear&quot; — either position presented one-way, top-down, with no method to debate the point. Both demonstrate the diagnostic: where there is no reciprocal interchange, there is no dialogue — only product placement of opinion.

== IV. Historical Roots: The Virtual Free University ==
The idea of a virtual university — an institution using computers and telecommunications instead of buildings and transport — was published in Ivan Illich's ''De-Schooling Society'' (1970), which introduced computer networks as switchboards for learning&lt;ref&gt;Illich, Ivan. ''Deschooling Society''. Harper &amp;#x26; Row, 1971.&lt;/ref&gt;. In 1971, under the sponsorship of Phil Jacklin PhD of the University of California, San Jose, a member of the Bay Area Committee for Open Media and Public Access, a lecture series on the Philosophy of Communications De-Design delivered the theoretical outlines: telecommunications and media applied to the de-schooling of mainstream education and the founding of an alternative Virtual Free University system&lt;ref&gt;Kasey, George. &quot;De-Design and the Ethics of Information Architecture.&quot; ResearchGate, January 2023. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22795.96808.&lt;/ref&gt;.

One benchmark moment from that first class deserves the record: all thirty-seven students were told they need complete no assignments, no examinations, attend nothing — full credit would be given regardless. Only those interested in the actual study should return. The second class seated seven. One of them was a friendly member of the intelligence community. Accreditation, not learning, is what most consumers of education are buying — and radical academic freedom, fully expressed, automatically attracts its observers.

By 1972, ''Media Free Times'' — periodical multi-media random sampling of anarchic communications art — was established as the prototype: the &quot;multi-media periodical,&quot; a mailed artifact functioning as what would now be called a web page, over two decades before the web existed. Volume 2, No. 1 (Spring 1974) was published by the Nada Foundation, Vancouver, and today circulates as a collectible through rare-book dealers — the original avant-garde prototype turned antique, while its concept was co-opted into a multibillion-dollar advertising scheme.

Forty-five years on, the ViFrU portal has counted roughly half a dozen marginal subscribers. This is reported not as grievance but as datum: the course in media ethics for human ecological recovery has had no takers and no subscribers ''because'' the medium that would carry its invitation is the very subject of its critique. The message cannot be delivered by the machine that suppresses it — hence: underground.

== V. The Pipeline: Parsing Twenty-Five Million Words ==
Six years of development on a speech-recognition keyword-search tool now permit the parsing of a spoken-word corpus in excess of 4.7 million words (one-twelfth of the full archive) into retrievable keyword streams — the 2017 proof of concept searched &quot;sucrose&quot; across the corpus to isolate the media-mind-control thread. The mature workflow:

# Extract raw text through reader view, stripped of templates and advertising;
# Render to audio for time-compressed audit (Balabolka on a hardened, tracking-cleaned Windows machine; text-to-speech at accelerated speed, with the caution that speed also lowers the conscious filter of implants);
# Run keyword-spotting transcription over the audio archive;
# Distribute parsed, sanitized learning units peer-to-peer over encrypted channels.

The stated endpoint is a teaching intelligence assembled from the corpus — a world-teacher for the facts of life about human ecological recovery, deliverable to six billion handsets. What requires the security apparatus years of intelligence budget to accomplish for targeting, the ethically programmed parser accomplishes for teaching. It can be done, if the monopoly does not do it first, and worse.

== VI. The Demographic Foundation: NPH ==
Every thread above converges on one load-bearing claim. The high-rise, the megalopolis, the demographic J-curve, the war economy that ''means of production'' serves — all ride on population growth, and population growth rides on the erasure of the knowledge systems that once regulated it. [[Natural Procreative Hygiene]] — historically rooted practices aligning reproduction with biological maturity and ecological limits — is the missing element under the missing element. Mass mediation of herbal birth-control knowledge reduces population; reduced population returns architecture from vertical to horizontal; the horizontal world is the garden.

The suppression is documented elsewhere at length (''The Technethics Gap'', 2026; ''The Burnt Wreath'', 2026)&lt;ref&gt;Kasey, George. &quot;The Burnt Wreath: Natural Procreative Hygiene and Epistemicide in Lithuania.&quot; ''Zenodo'', September 2026. https://zenodo.org/records/22815239.&lt;/ref&gt;. Here it enters as architecture: what is built is what is propagated; what is propagated is what is profitable; what is profitable at eight billion customers is addiction. De-design the information, and the population becomes a choice again. Choose, and the skyline comes down to earth.

== VII. Conclusion ==
Underground information architecture is not a metaphor. It is a discipline with a canon (Ellul, Illich, Innis), a method (weighing and measuring), a provenance (1971–1974), a corpus (twenty-five million words), a pipeline (parse, redact, teach), and a foundation (Natural Procreative Hygiene). It proceeds, as it has for fifty-four years, without institutional sanction — because the sanctioning institutions are the structures it measures.

The design already exists on the graph paper. The blades are aligned. The machine will cut whatever the drawing specifies. The work of the underground is to hold the pencil.

== Keywords ==
Underground architecture · information architecture · de-design · de-schooling · artificial ignorance · media ethics · Jacques Ellul · Ivan Illich · Natural Procreative Hygiene · human ecological recovery · propaganda · Virtual Free University · Media Free Times

== See also ==

* [[Natural Procreative Hygiene]]
* [[wikipedia:Jacques Ellul|Jacques Ellul]]
* [[wikipedia:Ivan Illich|Ivan Illich]]
* [[wikipedia:Harold Innis|Harold Innis]]
* [[wikipedia:Marshall McLuhan|Marshall McLuhan]]
* [[wikipedia:Ben Bagdikian|Ben Bagdikian]]
* [[wikipedia:Neil Postman|Neil Postman]]
* [[wikipedia:Information architecture|Information architecture]]
* [[wikipedia:Deschooling|Deschooling]]
* [[wikipedia:Human overpopulation|Human overpopulation]]
* [[wikipedia:They Live|They Live]] (1988 film)

== References ==
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      <text bytes="520" sha1="rve2ksgpadrqbovhryccqbg88kgud6i" xml:space="preserve">== Page created on your behalf ==
Hi. I created [[Underground Information Architecture: De-Design, Media Ethics, NPH and Human Ecological Recovery]], since you were affected by the abuse filter (as the system doesn't trust you yet). When you continue editing with more than 5 edits and your account is more than 4 days old, the system will probably trust you. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:36, 26 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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